MECCA 

A  bird's-eye  view  showing,  in  the  centre,  the  Kaaba,  or  .Moslem  Holy  of  Holies. 


MOHAMMED  OR  CHRIST 


AN    ACCOUNT    OF    THE    RAPID    SPREAD    OF    ISLAM     IN    ALL 

PARTS    OF    THE    GLOBE,   THE    METHODS    EMPLOYED    TO 

OBTAIN    PROSELYTES,     ITS    IMMENSE    PRESS,    ITS 

STRONGHOLDS,  6-  SUGGESTED  MEANS  TO  BE 

ADOPTED  TO  COUNTERACT  THE  EVIL 


BY 

S.    M.   ZWEMER,   D.D.,   F.R.G.S. 

'  EDITOR  OF  "  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD  " 
AUTHOR  OF  "ARABIA:  THE  CRADLE  OF  ISLAM" 


WITH   AN   INTRODUCTION   BY 

THE    RIGHT    REVEREND   C.    H.    STILEMAN,    M.A.,    D.D. 

LATE  BISHOP  OF   PERSIA 


WITH   12  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK  CHICAGO  TORONTO 

Fleming  H.  Revell  Company 

LONDON  AND  EDINBURGH 


. 


PREFACE 

_L  HE  following  chapters  have  been  brought  together 
and  revised  at  this  critical  time  in  the  history  of  the 
Moslem  world  to  set  forth  the  appeal  of  that  world 
for  the  Gospel.  It  is  a  decisive  hour!  The  old 
order  is  changing,  and  there  is  a  new  attitude 
towards  the  old  message  everywhere.  New  national 
responsibilities  will  follow  the  great  world  war  and 
also  new  opportunities,  especially  in  the  Turkish 
Empire,  Arabia,  and  Egypt.  If  this  volume 
awakens  a  sense  of  responsibility  for  the  emanci- 
pation of  Moslem  womanhood,  the  uplifting  of  its 
childhood,  and  the  winning  of  its  manhood,  it  will 
have  fulfilled  its  purpose. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  given  to  The  Con- 
structive Quarterly,  The  Missionary  Review  of  the 
World,  and  The  International  Missionary  Review,  for 
permission  to  use  articles  originally  prepared  for 
these  magazines. 

S.  M.  ZWEMER. 

June  30,  1915. 

359434 


CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAGE 

I.  THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES  .  .  19 

/ 

II.  A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM  AND  ISLAM  .  .      37 

III.  A  CENSUS  OF  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD  .  .      55 

IV.  ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA         .           .           .  .  -73 
V.  ISLAM  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA        .           .  .  .91 

VI.  WHY  ARABIA?  .           .           .           .           .           .  101 

VII.  THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE  IN  WESTERN  ASIA     .  113 

VIII.  THE  CLOCK,  THE  CALENDAR,  AND  THE  KORAN     .  139 

IX.  TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN         .           .           .  155 

X.  THE  DYING  FORCES  OF  ISLAM         .          .          .181 

XI.  ARABIC  LITERATURE  AND  ITS  EVANGELISATION     .  191 

XII.  THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME  IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD  203 

XIII.  THE  STUMBLING-BLOCK  OF  THE  CROSS       .           .  227 

XIV.  THE  PRESENT  ATTITUDE  OF  EDUCATED  MOSLEMS 

TOWARDS  JESUS   CHRIST  AND  THE  SCRIPTURES     24$ 

XV.  THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN  .          .          .273 

INDEX     .  .....    283 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

MECCA    .......  Frontispiece 

THE  HUB  OF  ISLAM    .....       Page  16 

A  PAGE  FROM  AN  EGYPTIAN  CALENDAR     .  .          „    147 

FACING   PAGE 

MECCA  PILGRIMS  ENCAMPED  AT  ARAFAT  .  .  .80 

A  MOSLEM  FAMILY  IN  THE  CAUCASUS  .  .  .80 

MOSQUE  IN  WESTERN  CHINA          .  .  .  .128 

MOSQUE  AT  LAGOS,  WEST  AFRICA  .  .  .  .128 

A  PAGE  FROM  A  POLYGLOT  KORAN  .  .  .160 

A    PAGE   FROM   THE   ARABIC-JAVANESE   PUBLISHED   AT 

BATAVIA     .  .  .          .  .  .          .164 

A  PAGE  FROM  REV.  W.  GOLDSACK'S  BENGALI  TRANS- 
LATION OF  THE  KORAN  .  .          .          .          .168 

A  SPECIMEN  PAGE  OF  CHINESE  KORAN  COMMENTARY    .    172 
PILGRIMS  AT  MECCA   .  216 


INTRODUCTION 

DR.  ZWEMER  has  done  well  to  remind  the  Church 
of  Christ  once  again  in  these  chapters  of  the  greatness 
and  the  urgency  of  the  Moslem  problem.  And  the 
opportunity  is  as  great  as  the  urgency.  He  tells  us 
that  of  the  two  hundred  and  one  million  Mohammedans, 
ninety  and  a  half  millions  are  under  British  rule  or 
protection,  and  another  seventy-six  and  a  half  millions 
under  other  Western  or  Christian  Governments. 
Doors  which  have  been  almost  closed  for  centuries 
are  now  open,  or  being  opened,  by  Him  who  opens 
and  no  man  can  shut.  There  is  every  probability 
that  the  result  of  the  present  abnormal  conditions 
will  be  to  fling  those  doors  still  more  widely  open. 
Islam  is  becoming  more  and  more  disintegrated. 
We  hear  its  cry  of  despair  and  its  call  for  reform. 
Not  every  one  may  know  that  Dr.  Zwemer  is  a 
distinguished  American  missionary  with  a  close 
knowledge  of  the  problems  which  face  the  spread  of 
Christianity  in  Mohammedan  lands.  He  has  for 
many  years  lived  in  Moslem  countries,  and  is  a 
recognised  authority  on  them.  So  far  back  as  1890, 
when  I  was  a  C.M.S.  missionary  in  Turkish  Arabia, 


INTRODUCTION 

he  was  travelling  round  the  Arabian  coast  with  a 
view  to  establishing  stations  of  the  American  Arabian 
Mission  of  which  he  was  for  the  next  twenty  years  one 
of  the  pioneers.  This  volume  from  his  pen  constitutes 
a  fresh  call  to  Christ's  people  to  rise  to  the  height  of 
their  responsibilities  and  privileges  and  to  go  forth 
in  the  strength  of  the  Lord,  bearing  the  Gospel  of 
salvation  to  those  who  are  trying  in  vain  to  satisfy 
themselves  with  the  dry  husks  of  the  Koran  and  the 
traditions. 

We  are  reminded  that,  for  this  purpose,  many  more 
specially  trained  men  and  women  with  a  message 
are  needed.  For  these  we  must  pray  the  great  Lord 
of  the  Harvest,  Who  alone  can  prepare  and  provide 
them.  Scarcely  less  necessary  is  the  printed  page 
for  circulation  in  Moslem  lands. 

And,  in  the  mobilisation  of  our  spiritual  forces, 
we  do  well  to  remember  that  prayer  is  "  not  only  a 
precious  privilege,  but  a  primary  method  of  work." 
It  is  prayer  which  links  our  impotence  to  God's 
omnipotence.  And  true  prayer  seeks  its  own  answer 
in  sacrifice  and  service.  The  result  of  the  great  con- 
flict with  Islam  is  not  in  doubt.  The  only  thing 
that  is  in  doubt  is  the  share  which  each  one  of  our 
Master's  fellow-workers  will  claim  in  bringing  in  the 
glorious  day  when  it  shall  be  no  longer  necessary  to 
ask  the  question  '  Mohammed  or  Christ  ? '  but 
when  in  the  name  of  Jesus  every  knee  shall  bow  and 


INTRODUCTION 

every  tongue  shall  confess  that  Jesus  Christ  is  Lord, 
to  the  glory  of  God  the  Father  (Phil.  ii.  11). 

That  day  will  be  hastened  by  His  servants  uniting 
in  a  holy  fellowship  of  prayer,  sacrifice,  and  service 
for  the  Moslem  world. 

CHARLES  H.  STILEMAN 

(Bishop). 

WIMBLEDON,  Sept.  1915. 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES 


"  THE  dominant  impression  of  my  recent  visit  to  the 
Levant  is  that  a  new  day  of  unparalleled  openings  for 
work  among  Moslems  has  dawned.  We  must  attempt 
great  things,  meeting  present  opportunity  and  arousing 
Western  Christendom  to  its  neglected  task.  Prayer  has 
disintegrated  the  stolid  indifference  of  Islam.  Time  has 
come  for  aggressive  action.  No  agency  can  penetrate 
Islam  so  deeply,  abide  so  persistently,  witness  so  daringly, 
and  influence  so  irresistibly,  as  the  printed  page.  May  we 
set  up  new  standards  of  prayer,  faith  and  effort  for  the 
winning  of  the  Moslem  world  to  Christ." — Dr.  CHARLES  R. 
WATSON,  The  Hub  of  the  Mohammedan  World. 


18 


MOHAMMED   OR   CHRIST 

CHAPTER    I 

THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES 

unity  of  the  Moslem  world  is  recognised  to- 
day as  never  before,  by  the  secular  press,  by  students 
of  Islam,  by  the  Christian  Church  in  its  missionary 
councils,  and  by  Moslems  themselves.  The  most 
vivid  illustration,  however,  of  this  unity  is  found  in 
the  present-day  importance  and  influence  of  the 
three  great  capitals  of  the  Moslem  world  which  knit 
together,  by  the  warp  and  woof  of  their  cosmopoli- 
tan influence,  the  whole.  Mecca,  Constantinople, 
and  Cairo  stand  out  supreme  as  centres  of  influence 
to-day.  Every  Moslem  throughout  the  world,  even 
at  the  uttermost  extremities  of  the  vast  brotherhood, 
as,  for  example,  those  who  are  in  Japan  or  in  China, 
has  personal  relations  almost  daily  with  these  three 
cities.  He  stretches  his  prayer  -  carpet  towards 
Mecca  ;  he  prays  on  Fridays,  not  for  his  own  local 
sovereign  or  ruler,  but  for  the  Caliph  of  Stamboul ; 
and  the  chances  are  that  if  he  reads  the  Koran,  it 
bears  on  its  title-page  the  imprint  of  Cairo.  His 
hope  for  salvation  culminates  in  a  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  ;  his  hope  for  victory  over  the  unbelievers 
who  oppress  Moslems,  and  for  whom  the  day  of 
vengeance  will  come,  is  in  the  great  Rajah  of  Con- 


20     THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES 

stantiriople  ;  and  his  hope  to  succeed  in  worsting 
his  Christian  opponents  by  arguments,  is  fostered  by 
the  productions  of  the  Cairo  press.  Mecca  has  not 
lost  its  importance  with  the  passing  of  the  centuries, 
but  is  still  a  city  whose  pulse  throbs  with  a  religious 
life  that  finds  an  outlet  to  the  farthest  limits  of  the 
Moslem  world.  It  is  the  heart  of  Islam.  Cairo 
is  the  head,  where  religious  thought  and  education, 
controversy  and  Moslem  propagandism  through  the 
press  have  their  real  centre.  And  Constantinople 
has,  since  the  Ottoman  Turks  made  it  their  capital, 
been  the  hand  of  Islam,  the  centre  of  its  political 
power  and  also,  alas  !  of  grievous  political  persecution. 

I.  Mecca  is  not  only  the  religious  capital  of  the 
cradle  of  the  Moslem  faith  and  the  birthplace  of  their 
Prophet,  but  it  is  the  central  shrine  of  Islam,  towards 
which  for  centuries  prayers  and  pilgrimages  have 
gravitated.  The  whole  Old  Testament  narrative 
as  it  is  given  in  distorted  form,  both  in  the  Koran 
and  in  tradition,  finds  in  Mecca  its  real  environment. 
Adam  and  Eve  met  each  other  at  Mt.  Arafah.  Eve 
lies  buried  at  Jiddah.  God  Himself  appointed  the 
place  for  the  Kaaba,  and  the  stone  is  still  sacred 
on  which  Abraham  stood  when  "he  erected  the 
building  ! 

The  importance  of  Mecca  is  not  in  its  stationary 
population  of  scarcely  60,000,  but  in  the  number  of 
pilgrims  from  every  nation  of  Islam  that  visit  it  every 
year.  Statistics  are  hopelessly  contradictory  and 
confusing  as  regards  the  number  of  those  who  visit 
the  city  annually.  According  to  Turkish  official 
estimates  in  1907,  there  were  no  less  than  281,000 
pilgrims.  Their  coming  is  an  index  of  the  growth 
and  strength  of  Islam,  and  their  return  from  Mecca 


THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES      21 

to  their  native  villages  in  Java,  Bengal,  West  Africa, 
Cape  Colony  and  Russia,  means  the  advent  of 
fanatical  ambassadors  of  the  greatness  and  glory 
of  their  faith,  however  much  they  may  have  been 
disappointed  in  the  actual  condition  of  the  city  and 
of  the  Kaaba,  When  we  consider  Mecca,  Moham- 
med's words  of  prophecy  in  the  second  chapter  of 
his  book  seem  to  have  been  literally  fulfilled  :  "  So 
we  have  made  you  the  centre  of  the  nations,  that 
you  should  bear  witness  to  men."  The  old  pagan 
pantheon  has  become  the  religious  sanctuary  and 
the  goal  of  universal  pilgrimage  for  one-seventh  of 
the  human  race.  From  Sierra  Leone  to  Canton,  and 
from  Tobolsk  to  Cape  Town,  the  faithful  spread  their 
prayer-carpets,  build  their  houses,  in  fulfilment  of 
an  important  tradition  (and  even  their  outhouses  !), 
and  bury  their  dead  towards  the  meridian  of  Mecca. 
Seen  from  an  aeroplane,  there  would  be  concentric 
circles  of  living  worshippers  covering  an  ever-widen- 
ing area,  and  one  would  also  see  stretched  out  vast 
areas  of  Moslem  cemeteries  with  every  grave  built 
towards  the  sacred  city.  Well  may  we  ponder  the 
words  of  Stanley  Lane-Poole  as  to  the  place  which 
Mecca  and  the  pilgrimage  hold  in  the  Moslem  faith. 
Have  they  not  a 'special  significance  at  this  day  when 
we  speak  of  the  strategic  occupation  of  the  world 
for  its  evangelisation  ? 
He  wrote  : 

"Is  it  asked  how  the  destroyer  of  idols  could  have 
reconciled  his  conscience  to  the  circuits  of  the  Kaaba  and 
the  veneration  of  the  Black  Stone  covered  with  adoring 
kisses  ?  The  rites  of  the  pilgrimage  cannot  certainly 
be  defended  against  the  charge  of  superstition  ;  but  it  is 
easy  to  see  why  Mohammed  enjoined  them.  .  .  .  He 
well  knew  the  consolidating  effect  of  forming  a  centre 


22      THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES 

to  which  his  followers  should  gather,  and  hence  he  re- 
asserted the  sanctity  of  the  Black  Stone  that c  came  down 
from  heaven  ' ;  he  ordained  that  everywhere  throughout 
the  world  the  Moslem  should  pray  looking  toward  the 
Kaaba,  and  enjoined  him  to  make  the  pilgrimage  thither. 
Mecca  is  to  the  Moslem  what  Jerusalem  is  to  the  Jew. 
It  bears  with  it  all  the  influence  of  centuries  of  associa- 
tions. It  carries  the  Moslem  back  to  the  cradle  of  his 
faith  and  the  childhood  of  his  prophet.  .  .  .  And,  most 
of  all,  it  bids  him  remember  that  all  his  brother  Moslems 
are  worshipping  toward  the  same  sacred  spot ;  that  he 
is  one  of  a  great  company  of  believers  united  by  one 
faith,  filled  with  the  same  hopes,  reverencing  the  same 
thing,  worshipping  the  same  God." 

The  question  of  the  occupation  of  Mecca  as  a 
centre  for  Christian  missions  may  well  stagger  our 
faith  when  we  consider  at  what  tremendous  cost  the 
city  was  unveiled  by  intrepid  travellers.  Augustus 
Ralli  has  recently  given  us  a  book  under  the  striking 
title  of  Christians  at  Mecca,  in  which  he  tells  the 
story  of  all  those  Christian  pilgrims  who,  either  in 
disguise  or  by  abandoning  their  faith,  or  in  one  or 
two  cases  under  compulsion,  reached  the  sacred 
city.  Bartema,  Wilde  and  Joseph  Pitts,  Burton, 
Burckhardt,  Hurgronje  and  Courtellemont,  took 
their  lives  in  their  hands,  herded  with  strange 
companions,  underwent  untold  hardships,  and  by 
luck  or  pluck  came  scathless  out  of  this  lions'  den 
of  Islam.  According  to  Doughty,  scarcely  a  pilgrim- 
age takes  place  without  some  persons  being  put  to 
death  as  intruding  Christians.  An  educated  and 
pious  Moslem  in  Cairo  assured  me  only  a  short  time 
ago  that  when  he  went  on  pilgrimage  and  took 
pictures  of  the  city,  his  life  was  endangered  more 
than  once  by  the  fanaticism  of  the  inhabitants. 


THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES      23 

However,  there  are  many  who  believe  that  the 
opening  of  the  Hedjaz  Railway,  especially  as  a 
branch  is  to  be  carried  to  Jiddah,  and  the  gradual 
breaking  up  of  Turkish  power  in  Arabia,  may  mean 
the  removal  of  restrictions  against  non-Moslems. 

Mecca  is  a  challenge  to  faith  and  to  Christian^* 
heroism.  If  it  were  an  island  in  the  South  Seas 
with  a  similar  population  and  annual  pilgrimage, 
how  long  would  the  Church  have  to  wait  for  men 
like  Paton,  Chalmers,  or  Williams  to  enter  fearlessly, 
even  though  it  should  cost  them  their  lives  ?  No 
one  who  has  read  the  account  of  social  life  at  Mecca 
as  given  by  Hurgronje  and  corroborated  by  every 
recent  traveller,  can  doubt  the  utter  need  of  the  Gospel 
for  this  city.  Mecca  is  the  microcosm  of  Islam  in 
its  religious  life  and  aspirations.  According  to 
Hurgronje,  "it  is  Islam,  the  official  religion,  which 
brings  together  and  amalgamates  all  the  hetero- 
geneous constituents  of  Meccan  life.  On  the  other 
hand,  this  society  itself  welds  into  a  chaotic  whole 
the  prejudices  and  superstitions  of  all  countries." 
In  other  words,  Mecca  is  the  sink-hole  of  Islam. 
All  witnesses  agree  as  to  the  flagrant  immorality 
which  pervades  the  streets  and  even  the  mosques  of 
the  sacred  city,  the  prevalence  of  the  slave  trade, 
the  fleecing  of  pilgrims,  and  the  corruption  of  the 
local  government.  If  Mecca  is  the  glory  of  the 
Moslem  world,  they  glory  in  their  shame.  The 
Christ  Who  wept  over  Jerusalem  and  had  compassion 
on  the  multitudes  is  surely  waiting  for  some  one 
to  go  to  this  great  city  and  to  stand  amid  its  hundred 
thousand  pilgrims  and  point  them  away  from  the 
reeking  shambles  of  their  yearly  sacrifice  to  the 
Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world  ; 
away  from  the  well  of  Zemzem  to  the  Water  of  Life  ! 


24      THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES 

II.  Constantinople  by  its  very  location  on  the 
Bosphorus,  facing  two  continents  and  two  great 
civilisations,  will  always  be  of  political  and  com- 
mercial importance.  In  view  of  the  wonderful 
events  that  are  transpiring  as  we  write  these  lines,  the 
words  of  Sir  William  Ramsay  concerning  this  great 
capital  of  Islam  seem  almost  prophetic  : 

"  Constantinople  is  the  centre  about  which  history 
revolves.  It  is  the  bridge  that  binds  the  East  to  the 
West,  the  old  to  the  new  civilisation,  which  must  be 
brought  into  harmony  before  the  culmination  of  all 
civilisation  can  appear,  bringing  peace  on  earth  and  good- 
will toward  men." 

Founded  by  Constantine  and  beautified  by  Jus- 
tinian, the  old  city  represented  visibly  the  overthrow 
of  paganism  and  the  triumph  of  Christianity.  The  / 
great  church  of  St.  Sophia  was  literally  built  by 
stripping  the  glory  from  heathen  temples  far  and 
near,  and  yet  that  very  church  has  for  centuries,  since 
the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  also  symbolised 
the  conquest  of  Oriental  Christianity  by  Islam. 
Will  it  soon  again  resound  with  praises  to  the 
Trinity  ? 

It  is  evident  to  the  student  of  history  that  all  other 
factors  which  add  to  the  glory  of  this  metropolis  are 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  its  political  and 
religious  importance  in  relation  to  the  Moslem  world. 
The  position  of  Turkey  and  of  the  Ottoman  Empire 
is  unique  among  other  Moslem  countries.  For 
centuries  it  has  stood  out  as  the  one  great  temporal 
power  of  Islam,  with  laws  and  usages  built  upon  the 
book  and  the  traditions  of  the  Prophet.  Here  is  the 
residence  of  the  Caliph,  the  Imam-el-Muslimin,  the 
supreme  pontiff  of  the  church  State  called  Islam. 


\ 


THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES      25 

Even  at  the  present  day  Constantinople  and  its 
politics  are  the  cynosure  of  Islam  from  Morocco  to 
the  Philippine  Islands.  The  fall  of  Constantinople 
would  be  interpreted  by  Moslems  everywhere  as  the 
direst  disaster.  This  accounts  for  the  enthusiastic 
and  almost  fanatic  response  in  every  part  of  Moslem 
India  to  the  appeals  to  help  the  Sultan  during  the  war 
in  Tripoli  and  in  the  Balkan  States. 

Constantinople  is  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  To  it  all  the  States  of  Turkey  look  for 
political  direction,  and  representatives  from  every 
tribe  and  race  in  the  empire  are  found  on  its  streets. 
"  As  a  base  for  missionary  operations  not  only  upon 
Turkey,  but  upon  adjacent  countries  as  well,"  says 
Dr.  Barton,  "it  is  unexcelled.  A  publishing  house 
at  Constantinople  is  calculated  by  its  very  location  to 
reach  millions  who  might  otherwise  refuse  to  read 
what  is  printed.  In  Arabia  an  Arabic  Bible,  at  first 
rejected  because  it  is  an  infidel's  book,  is  later 
accepted  because  it  bears  upon  its  title-page  the 
authoritative  permission  of  his  Imperial  Majesty.  As 
a  strategic  centre  for  Christian  work,  calculated 
directly  and  indirectly  to  reach  the  200,000,000  who 
bear  the  name  of  the  prophet  of  Arabia,  there  is  no 
place  that  can  compare  with  Constantinople,  resting 
upon  two  continents  and  swaying  the  most  mighty 
religious  empire  on  earth." 

The  population  of  (^^tantiaople  is  given  as 
1,106,000,  but  of  these  scarcely  more  than  one-half 
are  Moslems.  This  fact  only  emphasises,  however, 
its  importance  as  a  missionary  centre.  Here  the 
forces  of  Christianity  and  Islam,  numerically  con- 
sidered, are"  so  nearly  balanced  that  the  impact  of  a 
vital  Christianity  once  more  dominant  in  the  Oriental 
Churches  would  exercise  an  influence  such  as  would 


26      THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES 

not  be  possible  elsewhere.  And  for  the  past  fifty 
years  such  influence  has  been  felt.  The  late  Mr. 
William  T.  Stead  once  said  :  "  How  many  American 
citizens,  I  wonder,  are  aware  that  from  the  slopes 
of  Mt.  Ararat  all  the  way  to  the  shores  of  the  blue 
jEgean  Sea,  American  missionaries  have  scattered 
broadcast  over  all  this  distressful  land  the  seed  of 
American  principles  ?  They  are  here  everywhere 
teaching,  preaching,  begetting  new  life  in  these 
Asiatic  races."  Robert  College,  the  Bible  House  at 
Constantinople,  the  American  College  for  Girls,  and 
similar  institutions  have  from  this  strategic  centre 
sent  out,  as  from  a  power-house,  currents  of  life  and 
thought  throughout  the  Moslem  world.  But  for  the 
adequate  occupation  of  this  centre,  especially  face  to 
face  with  present-day  changed  conditions  and  un- 
heard of  liberties,  the  present  missionary  force  might 
well  be  doubled.  Can  it  be  true,  as  Dr.  Dwight  asserts, 
that  in  place  of  applying  its  tremendous  power  to 
the  problems  of  these  awakening  races,  the  Christian 
printing  apparatus  at  Constantinople  is  crippled  for 
lack  of  funds  ?  l  The  strength  of  Islam  lies  in  its 
ignorance  ;  the  strength  of  Christianity,  in  Christian  " 
education.  The  new  situation  calls  for  an  enormous 
expansion  of  all  the  present  existing  agencies  in 
order  to  win  the  political  capital  of  Islam  for  Christ. 

III.  Cairo,  "  the  victorious,"  as  its  name  signifies, 
is  at  once  the  capital  of  Egypt,  the  metropolis  of  all 
Africa  and  the  brain  centre  of  the  Moslem  world. 
With  a  Moslem  population  nearly  twice  as  large  as 
that  of  Stamboul  and  larger  than  that  of  any  other 

1  See  his  chapter  on  "  A  Half -forgotten  Agency,"  in  Constantinople 
and  its  Problems  ;  and  also  an  important  article  on  "  Constantinople 
as  a  Centre  of  Islam,"  in  The  Moslem  World,  vol.  i.  p.  229. 


THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES      27 

Moslem  city  in  the  world,  its  influence  is  steadily 
growing,  not  only  throughout  North  Africa  but 
throughout  the  nearer  East.  Its  statistics  of  popu- 
lation, its  architectural  monuments,  educational 
institutions,  municipal  government,  street  cries,  and 
street  signs  and  daily  life,  make  it  evident  to  even 
the  casual  observer  that  this  is  a  thoroughly  Moslem 
city.  Of  the  fifteen  quarters  into  which  the  vast  city 
is  divided,  there  is  only  one  quarter,  the  Esbekieh, 
where  non-Moslems  are  in  the  majority  ;  and  even 
this  quarter  contains  13,000  Moslems  compared  with 
14,000  Copts.  In  the  Darb-ul-Ahmar  quarter  there 
are  62,000  Moslems  and  a  non-Moslem  population  of 
only  2000.  Bulaq  quarter  has  82,000,  a  city  in  itself, 
with  a  total  non-Moslem  population  of  only  7800. 
The  Gemalieh  quarter  has  50,000  Moslems  compared 
with  2000  non-Moslems,  and  the  Khalifa  quarter 
has  53,000  Moslems  and  1340  non-Moslems.  Saida 
Zeinab  quarter  has  over  63,000  Moslems  and  a  non- 
Moslem  population  of  only  2300.  The  Moslem 
population  of  Gizah  Mudiriah,  close  to  Cairo,  is  11,900, 
while  the  number  of  non-Moslems  is  less  than  4000. 
The  total  population  of  this  great  world  capital  is 
nearly  800,000,  of  which  probably  90  per  cent,  is 
Mohammedan.  Cairo  has  206  mosques,  not  count- 
ing the  smaller  ones,  and  among  them  at  least  100  are 
architectural  monuments  of  the  history  and  the 
glory  of  Islam.  In  the  Khedival  Library  one  can 
trace  the  literary  history  of  the  city  in  priceless 
MSS.  of  the  Koran  and  other  books.  Away  from 
the  tourist-infected  Esbekieh  and  the  shopping  dis- 
trict of  the  Levantines,  Cairo  is  still  so  Moslem  in 
character  that  it  is  the  best  place  in  the  world 
for  the  study  of  Moslem  life  and  superstitions. 
Only  a  stone's  throw  from  the  Central  Railway 


28      THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES 

station  is  the  tomb  of  the  famous  Weli  Madbouli,  the 
patron  saint  of  the  capital,  whose  reputed  restless- 
ness in  his  tumble -down  tomb  raised  a  riot  on  the 
streets  of  Bulaq  only  a  short  time  ago.  Lane's 
Modern  Egyptians,  which  describes  everyday  life  in 
Cairo,  still  continues  to  be  the  best  authority  on 
Moslem  home  life  and  social  institutions. 

If  Mecca  is  the  religious  centre  and  Constantinople 
the  political  centre  of  the  Moslem  world,  Cairo  above 
all  things  is  its  literary  centre.  The  Earl  of  Cromer, 
not  without  reason,  described  the  ulema  of  Cairo  as 
"  the  guardians  of  the  citadel  of  Islam."  No  other 
city  in  the  Moslem  world  has  so  many  students  of 
Moslem  theology  and  law,  or  pours  out  such  a  flood 
of  Moslem  literature  as  does  Cairo.  Millions  of 
pages  of  the  Koran  in  many  and  beautiful  editions, 
commentaries  and  books  of  devotion  by  the  hundred 
thousand,  thousands  of  books  and  pamphlets  attacking 
the  Christian  faith  or  defending  Islam  and  propagating 
its  teaching,  come  ceaselessly  year  after  year  from 
the  Moslem  presses  of  this  great  centre  of  Moslem 
learning.  Books  printed  in  Cairo  are  read  by  the 
camp-fires  of  the  Sahara,  in  the  market  place  of 
Timbuctoo,  under  the  very  shadow  of  the  Kaaba, 
in  the  bazaars  of  Baghdad,  and  are  treasured  as 
authoritative  in  the  mosques  of  Java,  Burma,  Cape 
Town,  and  Canton.  There  is  no  speech  or  language 
in  the  Moslem  world  in  which  the  voice  of  the  Cairo 
press  is  not  heard.  Its  line  is  gone  out  through  all 
the  earth,  and  its  words  to  the  end  of  the  world.  A 
visitor  to  the  booksellers'  quarter  near  El  Azhar 
University  is  soon  convinced  of  the  intellectual 
vitality  of  the  Moslem  religion.  The  intellectual 
readjustment  which  has  become  necessary  in  the 
minds  of  all  thinking  Moslems,  because  of  the  philo- 


THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES       29 

sophical  and  social  disintegration  of  Islam  through 
the  impact  of  the  West  and  Christianity,  is  here  felt 
as  nowhere  else.  The  currents  of  thought  run 
contrary  and  with  terrific  force.  One  must  read 
Moslem  papers  to  appreciate  the  pathos  of  the  situa- 
tion. Attack  and  counter-attack  are  incessant. 
The  conservatives  have  as  their  watchword  "Back 
to  Mohammed  !  "  They  hope  to  reinvigorate  the  old 
religion  by  a  return  to  the  golden  age.  The  weakness 
of  Islam,  they  say,  is  its  spirit  of  compromise.  This 
movement  still  finds  its  stronghold  in  El  Azhar 
University  in  spite  of  recent  attempts  at  reform. 
The  progressives,  the  advocates  of  a  new  Islam, 
are  just  as  anxious  to  get  away  from  Mohammed 
and  the  old  traditions  and  to  substitute  for  the 
Mohammed  of  history  an  idealised  prophet.  A  new 
commentary  to  the  Koran,  which  is  to  supersede  the 
old  standards,  is  appearing  month  by  month  in  a 
leading  magazine.  When  the  attempts  to  reform  El 
Azhar  University  in  its  curriculum  and  administra- 
tion failed,  there  was  a  great  clamour  for  the  founding 
of  an  Egyptian  University  to  provide  at  once  Arabic 
and  Western  learning  from  a  Moslem  standpoint. 
According  to  the  testimony  of  one  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  situation,  all  the  government 
secondary  and  professional  schools  in  Cairo  are  either 
Moslem  or  agnostic  in  their  influence. 

"  The  universities,  both  old  and  new,  are  centres  of 
Islam  and  under  purely  Moslem  control.  Neither  in  their 
ethical  teaching  nor  in  the  lives  of  their  professors  is 
there  to  be  found  a  basis  for  the  upbuilding  of  Christian, 
spiritual,  moral  character.  The  students  of  the  secondary 
and  professional  schools  are  drifting  away  from  their 
traditional  moorings  of  belief  and  the  restraints  of  life 
into  unbelief  and  immorality." 


30      THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES 

With  increased  intellectual  light  and  the  enormous 
development  of  education  in  recent  years,  there  has 
come  a  flood  of  literature  in  French  and  in  Arabic 
translation,  which  is  not  only  non-Christian  and 
often  anti-Christian,  but  to  a  great  degree  immoral 
and  corrupting.  The  vendors  of  this  literature  are 
found  at  every  street  corner,  and  it  is  even  offered 
for  sale  on  the  tramcars  and  at  the  railway 
stations. 

This  brings  us  to  a  second  point  in  the  strategic 
influence  of  Cairo,  namely,  its  journalism.  At  the 
gateway  between  the  East  and  the  West  and  on  the 
cross-roads  of  the  commerce  of  three  continents,  it 
is  no  wonder  that  Cairo  has  more  than  sixty  daily 
newspapers.  In  one  year  (1909)  25,169,000  news- 
papers and  periodicals  passed  through  the  Egyptian 
mail,  and  of  these  more  than  2,500,000  copies  went 
from  Egypt  into  other  Moslem  lands.  Of  the  dailies, 
thirty-nine  are  published  in  Arabic.  There  are 
seventeen  Arabic  literary  reviews,  three  judicial 
periodicals,  three  medical  journals,  two  women's 
journals,  and  eleven  Moslem  magazines  devoted  to 
religion.  One  of  the  most  influential  dailies,  the 
'Alam,  has  recently  been  suppressed  by  the  govern- 
ment for  indulging  in  criticism  of  Turkish  and  British 
rule.  It  was  believed  to  have  a  circulation  of  at  least 
15,000  copies  daily,  probably  the  largest  of  any 
Arabic  paper  in  the  world. 

If,  as  some  suppose,  the  dervish  orders  and  Sufiism 
are  the  real  strength  of  Islam  among  the  masses, 
then  also  Cairo  holds  perhaps  the  first  rank  as  a 
Moslem  city,  for  since  the  decay  of  temporal  power 
in  the  Moslem  world,  all  the  various  dervish  fra- 
ternities have  their  centres  here,  as  has  been 
shown  by  the  investigations  of  Depont  and  Coppo- 


THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES      31 

lani  in  the  striking  map  which   accompanies  their 
book.1 

The  intellectual  revival  in  Egypt,  therefore,  the\ 
spread  of  education,  the  freedom  of  the  press  under) 
the  British  Occupation,  and  the  increased  use  of\ 
Arabic  and  the  Arabic  character  throughout  allj 
North  Africa,  have  facilitated  the  propagandism  of] 
Islam  from  Cairo  as  a  centre,  and  emphasises  its  j 
growing  importance.  It  is  the  Gibraltar  of  the/ 
Moslem  faith. 

But  Cairo  is  also  becoming  a  Gibraltar  of  the 
Christian  faith,  not  only  for  Egypt  but  for  all  North 
Africa.  The  splendid  work  of  the  American  Mission 
in  the  Nile  valley  is  known  to  every  student  of 
missions.  The  wonderful  results  of  their  educational 
policy,  the  establishment  of  a  strong  evangelical 
Church,  so  that  the  Census  of  1907  showed  25,000 
Protestants,  the  revival  of  the  Coptic  Church,  and 
the  well-known  fact  that  Christians  of  Egypt,  intel- 
lectually, socially,  and  morally,  are  head  and  shoulders 
above  the  Moslem  population — all  these  together 
combine  to  prove  the  strategic  importance  of  Cairo 
as  a  missionary  centre.  Cairo  is  to  be  the  seat  of  the 
future  Christian  University  for  the  Nile  valley.  Men 
of  vision  are  already  laying  its  foundations  in  faith. 
In  Cairo  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  American 
Mission,  the  Bible  Societies  and  other  agencies  are 
working  in  perfect  harmony  for  the  strategic  occupa- 
tion of  the  city. 

Last,  but  not  least,  the  Nile  Mission  press  must 
be  mentioned.  Established  in  1905  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  and  distributing  religious  books  and  / 
magazines  in  Arabic,  and  preparing  special  literature 
for  Moslems  the  world  over,  the  press  has  grown  with 
1  Les  Confrtries  Religeuses  Musulmans,  Alger,  1897. 


32      THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES 

startling  rapidity,  and  has  more  than  fulfilled  the 
hopes  of  its  founders.  What  better  proof  can  be 
given  that  Cairo  is  not  only  the  intellectual  centre 
of  Islam  for  reaching  Moslems  than  this  eloquent 
list  of  countries  which  purchase  Arabic  literature 
from  the  Nile  Mission  press  for  Moslems  —  the 
Kameruns,  Lagos,  South  Nigeria,  North  Nigeria, 
Hausaland,  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunisia,  Tripoli, 
Egypt,  Egyptian  Sudan,  German  East  Africa,  British 
East  Africa,  Nyasaland,  Transvaal,  Natal,  Cape 
Colony,  Turkey  in  Europe,  Russia  in  Europe,  Russia 
hi  Asia,  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  Syria,  Palestine,  Arabia, 
Turkish  Arabia,  Persian  Armenia,  Persia,  India, 
Bengal,  United  Provinces,  Punjab,  Sindh,  South 
India,  China  (every  province),  Chinese  Turkestan. 
When  we  notice  the  avidity  with  which  special 
literature  for  Moslems  is  received  in  Cairo  itself, 
and  how  the  same  class  of  literature  is  demanded 
by  workers  among  Mohammedans  everywhere,  the 
conclusion  reached  by  Dr.  Charles  R.  Watson  seems 
inevitable  :  he  stated  that  his  dominant  impression, 
after  a  recent  visit  to  the  Levant,  was  that  "  no 
agency  can  penetrate  Islam  so  deeply,  abide  so 
persistently,  witness  so  daringly,  and  influence  so 
irresistibly,  as  the  printed  page." 

The  three  capitals  of  the  Moslem  world  come  to 
us  with  a  threefold  appeal.  Like  Nineveh  of  old, 
Constantinople,  because  of  its  vast  population, 
appeals  to  our  pity.  "  Should  not  I  spare  Nineveh, 
that  great  city,  wherein  are  more  than  six  score 
thousand  persons  that  cannot  discern  between 
their  right  hand  and  their  left  hand  ?  "  The  con- 
ditions in  Mecca,  that  Jerusalem  of  Islam  with  its 
Scribes  and  Pharisees,  its  sins  and  hypocrisies,  its 
hatred  of  the  Christ,  remind  us  of  what  Luke  records, 


THE  TALE  OF  THREE  CITIES      33 

"  When  He  drew  nigh,  He  saw  the  city  and  wept 
over  it  " ;  while  some  of  us  who  are  working  here  in 
Cairo,  when  we  experience  how  accessible  the  Moslem 
population  is  and  how  comparatively  little  is  yet 
being  done  for  them,  think  of  the  Lord's  words  to 
Paul  at  Corinth,  in  a  vision  :  "Be  not  afraid,  but 
speak,  and  hold  not  thy  peace :  for  I  am  with  thee, 
and  no  man  shall  set  on  thee  to  harm  thee :  for  I 
have  much  people  in  this  city."  Mecca  represents  the 
unoccupied  fields  of  Islam,  and  challenges  faith  and 
heroism.  Constantinople,  with  its  mosque  of  St. 
Sophia,  appeals  to  our  loyalty.  We  must  win  back 
what  was  lost  to  the  Church  of  Christ.  Cairo  is  the 
city  of  opportunity,  of  the  open  door  and  the  beckon- 
ing hand.  Mecca  represents  Islam  as  the  excluder, 
behind  closed  doors,  defying  the  entrance  of  the 
Christ ;  Constantinople,  Islam  as  the  intruder  into  the 
domains  of  the  King ;  Cairo  reminds  us  that  in 
Africa  Islam  is  the  great  rival  faith,  and  that  here 
must  be  fought  to  the  finish  the  struggle  for  a  con- 
tinent. The  three  cities  voice  the  appeal  of  three 
continents,  Asia,  Europe,  and  Africa,  to  be  freed 
from  the  thraldom  of  Mohammed  and  welcomed 
into  the  glorious  liberty  of  the  children  of  God. 


v/ 


CHAPTER   II 

A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM  AND  ISLAM 


CHAPTER   II 

A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM  AND  ISLAM 

IN  a  Calcutta  vernacular  paper,  Muhammadi, 
dated  28th  February  1914,  there  appeared  a  long 
article  entitled  "  Immense  Preparations  against 
Islam."  It  spoke  of  all  the  Christian  sects  as  arous- 
ing themselves  to  united  action  and  world-wide 
effort.  There  were  references  to  the  Conference 
at  Kikuyu,  to  work  of  the  World's  Sunday-School 
Association  for  Moslem  childhood,  and  then  the 
paper  appealed  to  its  readers  as  follows  : 

"  Where  is  the  spirit  that  existed  in  our  forefathers 
when  they  withstood  so  boldly  the  crusades  of  the 
Christians  ?  Then  Muslims  were  united  and  with  great 
self-sacrifice  and  for  the  glory  of  Islam  fought  and  con- 
quered, '  stamping  the  Christians  beneath  tfteir  feet.' 
But  now  the  Christians  are  attempting  to  rise.  They  are 
everywhere  sinking  their  sectarian  differences  with  the 
one  aim  to  destroy  our  faith.  They  are  not  marching 
on  us  to-day  with  unsheathed  sword  to  shed  streams  of 
blood,  but  with  peaceable  methods,  which  are  a  thousand 
times  more  deadly.  First  of  all  they  are  urging  the  need 
for  Christian  Unity.  Conferences  have  often  been  held 
at  which  it  has  been  confessed  that  missions  have  utterly 
failed  to  arrest  the  progress  of  Islam.  Now  the  Christians 
maintain  that  only  a  united  Christian  Church  can  over- 
come Islam. 

"  Surely  when  Christians  are  planning  such  a  huge 

87 


38         A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM 

campaign  it  is  an  evil  day  for  Islam.  Will  you  not  bestir 
yourselves  ?  If  you  spend  one  rupee  where  Christians 
spend  a  thousand,  then  the  victory  of  Islam  is  sure  and  not 
a  Christian  will  be  able  to  remain  in  Asia. 

"  The  fact  is,  Christians  are  becoming  more  united, 
while  in  Islam,  alas  !  we  are  all  divided.  We  spend  our 
time  watering  the  poisonous  trees  of  domestic  and  social 
quarrels,  when  we  should  be  starting  missions  everywhere 
to  check  the  inroads  of  the  Christian  faith.  ..." 

The  Cairo  press  has  sounded  forth  similar  warn- 
ings for  the  last  year  or  two,  giving  its  readers  an 
exaggerated  idea  of  the  wonderful  unity  of  purpose 
and  the  world-wide  co-operation  in  Christendom 
for  the  winning  of  the  Moslem  world.  When  we 
think,  however,  of  present-day  conditions  in  the 
Near  East,  of  the  sad  divisions  and  dissensions  in 
the  Oriental  Churches,  of  the  scattered  and  under- 
manned mission  stations  in  North  Africa,  and  the 
ineffectual  attempts  to  stem  the  tide  of  Moslem  pro- 
pagandism  even  south  of  the  Equator,  we  may 
well  hope  that  our  Moslem  brethren  will  prove  true 
prophets  and  seers  as  regards  the  future. 

The  present  situation  throughout  the  entire 
Moslem  world  is  an  unprecedented  one,  and  is  a 
challenge  not  only  to  a  dauntless  faith,  but  is  a 
distinct  call  to  unite  all  our  forces  in  the  coming 
struggle.  The  defeat  of  Turkey  on  the  battlefield 
and  her  loss  of  territory  in  Europe  were  the  result  of 
the  Union  of  the  Allies.  Their  dissensions,  mutual 
suspicions,  and  final  open  hostility  was  Turkey's 
opportunity  to  retrieve  at  least  a  part  of  her  losses 
and  re-occupy  Adrianople.  These  events  are  cer- 
tainly not  without  significance.  They  may  well 
form  a  warning  in  the  spiritual  conflict  with  spiritual 
weapons  for  the  victory  over  Islam. 


AND  ISLAM  39 

Islam  arose  as  a  world  religion  and  grew  strong  be-?, 
cause  of  the  divisions  and  dissensions  in  the  Christian 
field.  The  weakness  of  the  Oriental  Churches  and 
their  corrupt  state  were,  one  might  almost  say,  a 
preparation  for  the  spread  of  Islam.  The  Moslems 
presented  a  united  front,  Christendom  was  divided. 
The  preaching  of  the  apostles  of  Islam  was  earnest 
and  demanded  as  unconditional  a  surrender  as  did 
their  weapons.  The  thunder  of  their  cavalry  was 
not  more  terrible  to  the  enemy  than  the  clamour  of 
their  short,  sharp  creed  in  the  ears  of  an  idolatrous 
and  divided  Christendom :  "  La-ilaha  ilia  Allah ! 
Allahu  Akbar." 

The  whole  story  of  the  early  spread  of  Islam  in 
Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  North  Africa  is  tragic  because 
of  the  light  it  throws  on  the  real  condition  of  the 
Christian  Churches  during  that  period.  What  a  sad 
fate  overtook  Christianity  !  The  body  of  religion  was 
torn  and  bleeding,  its  soul  dying,  while  sect  and  faction 
were  fighting  about  the  hem  of  its  garments.  But 
we  thank  God  that  the  power  of  Christianity  is  re- 
viving in  the  Orient.  The  old  Churches  by  their 
unfaithfulness  were  the  occasion  of  the  great 
apostasy,  the  falling  away  to  Islam.  Surely  we 
may  say  that  their  requickening  is  a  pledge  of  its 
downfall. 

The  history  of  the  Armenian  Church  (faithful  unto 
death  during  persecution),  the  present-day  reforms 
in  the  Coptic  Church,  and  the  growing  sense  of  re- 
sponsibility among  the  younger  leaders  in  all  the 
Oriental  Churches  for  the  evangelisation  of  Moslems, 
are  full  of  encouragement.  We  are  too  apt  to  under- 
estimate the  spiritual  forces  that  remain  vital 
throughout  all  the  Moslem  lands  of  the  East.  They 
are  both  many  and  mighty,  with  latent  power. 


40         A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM 

"  Among  all  the  peoples  in  Western  Asia,"  says  Viscount 
Bryce,  "  the  Armenians  are  unquestionably  the  strongest ; 
and  what  I  have  seen  of  them  both  in  their  own  country 
and  in  America,  where  many  of  them  have  sought  refuge 
and  secured  prosperity,  leads  me  to  believe  them  to  be, 
in  point  of  industry,  intellect,  and  energy,  the  equals  of 
any  of  the  European  races.  The  fullest  proof  of  their 
constancy  and  courage  was  given  when,  in  the  massacres 
of  1895  and  1896,  thousands  died  as  martyrs  rather  than 
save  their  lives  by  accepting  Islam." 

This  testimony  is  confirmed  by  all  those  who  have 
made  a  sympathetic  study  of  the  Armenian  problem. 

One  of  the  most  startling  visual  proofs  of  the 
present-day  strength  of  Christianity  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  as  well  as  of  its  sad  divisions,  is  found  in  a 
map  recently  published.  It  was  prepared  by  Major 
R.  Huber,  formerly  Professor  in  the  Imperial  Otto- 
man War  School,  and  chief  engineer  in  the  Lebanon 
Province.  The  map  shows  on  large  scale,  the  pro- 
portionate population  of  Moslems,  Catholics,  Ar- 
menians, Greek  Orthodox,  Syrians,  Jacobites, 
Nestorians,  and  Protestants  in  every  Province. 
It  also  gives  the  number  and  location  of  the  various 
patriarchates,  bishoprics,  cathedrals,  churches,  con- 
vents, schools,  orphanages,  and  hospitals,  each  division 
of  the  Christian  Church  being  represented  by  a 
different  colour.  The  map  is  literally  dotted  with 
Christian  institutions  and  mission  centres,  but  the 
colour-scheme  is  as  perplexing  and  discouraging  as 
that  of  the  "  Rainbow  Bible  "  to  one  who  believes 
in  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  ! 

If  anything  can  unite  these  forces  of  Christendom 
in  the  Ottoman  Empire,  it  surely  is  the  unprece- 
dented opportunity  now,  under  the  new  conditions 
of  government,  economic  development,  and  freedom 


AND  ISLAM  41 

to  evangelise  the  Moslem  population.  Everything 
calls  for  a  united  Church. 

If  the  opportunity  in  the  Near  East  is  so  urgent, 
it  is  equally  so,  and  on  a  much  larger  scale,  in  India. 
The  total  Moslem  population  of  India,  according  to 
the  last  census,  is  67,871,767.  This  is  the  largest 
single  unit  of  Moslem  population  in  the  world,  with 
open  doors,  absolute  freedom,  wonderful  accessi- 
bility, and  a  responsiveness  not  met  elsewhere.  Here 
also  there  have  been  remarkable  results. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Moslems  in  India  are  active 
in  the  spread  of  their  faith  and  are  gaining  many  con- 
verts from  among  the  low  castes,  especially  in  those 
very  regions  where  there  are  mass  movements  towards 
Christianity.  Bishop  Whitehead  of  Madras,  speak- 
ing at  a  missionary  meeting  in  London,  referred  to 
these  conditions  when  he  said  : 

"  I  cannot  sit  down  before  I  say  one  more  word.  It  is 
that  these  urgent  needs  and  necessities,  this  great  crisis 
coming  upon  us  in  India,  do  constitute  a  great  call  not 
merely  to  the  members  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
and  not  merely  to  the  members  of  the  Church  of  England, 
but  to  all  Christians  here  in  the  homeland,  to  promote 
unity  and  co-operation.  When  I  first  went  to  India 
thirty  years  ago,  I  was  strongly  opposed  to  co-operation 
with  bodies  who  are  outside  the  Church  of  England. 
Thirty  years'  experience  has  made  me  a  complete  con- 
vert. You  are  enthusiastic  for  co-operation  and  unity 
here ;  but  I  do  not  think  that  you  can  realise  how  in- 
tensely we  long  for  it  in  the  Mission  field.  The  work  here 
in  England  has  been  built  up  largely  upon  the  basis  of 
competition  between  different  religious  bodies.  Now, 
in  the  Mission  field,  competition  is  absolutely  fatal  to  us. 
If  we  are  to  do  the  work  as  God  calls  us  to  do  it,  we  must 
have  co-operation  now ;  and  God  grant  that  we  may 
have  unity  at  no  distant  time.  Not  merely  for  the  sake 


42         A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM 

of  a  theory,  but  in  the  name  of  those  millions  of  souls 
who,  through  our  divisions,  are  being  kept  outside  the 
Christian  Church,  kept  apart  from  the  saving  truth  of  the 
Gospel  of  Christ,  I  appeal  to  you  all  here  in  England  to 
study  the  things  that  make  for  peace  and  make  for 
unity." 

Although  he  spoke  specially  of  his  experience  in 
Southern  India,  his  words  are  equally  true  of  the 
necessity  for  closer  co-operation  in  Bengal  and  the 
Punjab,  if  we  would  win  the  Moslems. 

And  what  shall  we  say  of  Africa  ?  If  ever  there 
was  a  missionary  situation  that  called  for  the  closest 
possible  co-operation,  and  a  situation  on  which  the 
whole  Church  and  not  a  fraction  or  faction  should 
concentrate  attention  and  effort,  it  is  that  of  the 
threatening  advance  of  Islam  in  Africa.  In  the 
words  of  the  Edinburgh  Conference  finding :  "  It 
presents  to  the  Church  of  Christ  the  decisive  question 
whether  the  Dark  Continent  shall  become  Moham- 
medan or  Christian  in  the  present  generation." 

It  needs  only  a  glance  at  the  present  distribution 
of  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  missionary  forces 
in  the  Dark  Continent  to  make  perfectly  evident 
this  fact :  face  to  face  with  Islam  there  must  be  no 
rivalry  or  overlapping  of  territory  or  of  energies. 
The  issues  at  stake  are  too  vital,  the  urgency  too 
great  for  anything  save  united  effort.  We  need  the 
help  of  all.  No  single  denomination  can  adequately 
cope  with  the  situation. 

A  few  years  ago  Canon  Sell  wrote  from  Madras, 
India  : 

"  There  are  times  when  it  is  very  difficult  to  balance 
the  competing  claims  of  various  parts  of  the  Mission  field. 
I  see  no  difficulty  now.  .  .  .  Certain  parts  of  Africa  form 


AND  ISLAM  43 

now,  in  military  language,  the  objective,  and  are  the 
strategical  positions  of  the  great  Mission  field.  .  .  .  Parts 
of  Africa  in  which  the  Moslem  advance  is  imminent  have 
for  the  present  a  pre-eminent  claim.  The  absorption 
of  pagan  races  into  Islam  is  so  rapid  and  continuous  that 
in  a  few  years'  time  some  may  be  quite  lost  to  us." 

Roman  Catholic  missionaries  and  those  of  Pro- 
testant Societies  are  entirely  agreed  as  to  the  character 
of  Islam  in  Africa  and  its  present-day  peril.  At  the 
German  Colonial  Congress  held  in  1910  at  Hamburg, 
the  subject  was  presented  by  Inspector  Axenfeld, 
representing  Protestant  Missions,  Dr.  Hansen,  repre- 
senting the  Roman  Catholics,  and  Professor  Becker, 
one  of  the  keenest  students  of  Islam  from  a  secular 
point  of  view.  A  strong  resolution  was  then  adopted 
by  the  whole  Congress,  which  read  : 

"  Since  the  progress  of  Islam  in  our  Colonies  is  accom- 
panied by  grave  perils,  this  Colonial  Congress  recommends 
a  thorough  study  of  Moslem  propagandism.  The  Congress 
is  thoroughly  convinced  that  everything  which  favours 
the  progress  of  Islam  and  hinders  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity should  be  avoided,  and  especially  commends  the 
cultural  efforts  of  missionary  education  and  hospital 
work  to  the  support  of  the  Colonial  Government.  We 
also  recognise  in  the  Moslem  peril  an  urgent  challenge  to 
German  Christianity  to  occupy  the  regions  threatened 
by  Islam  with  missionary  effort." 

If  a  Colonial  Congress  could  unite  in  so  strong  a 
resolution,  what  should  be  the  response  of  the  Christian 
Church  ?  The  situation  in  Africa  is  unique.  Out 
of  the  total  Moslem  population  of  42,039,349  all  are 
under  the  rule  of  Western  Christian  Governments 
with  the  exception  of  780,000  Moslems  in  Abyssinia 
and  Liberia.  The  situation  in  the  former  country 


44         A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM 

is  alarming,  as  Dr.  Enno  Littmann  has  shown  (in 
Der  Islam,  vol.  i.  No.  1)  that  whole  Christian  tribes 
have  gone  over  into  Islam  within  the  last  two 
decades. 

That  the  present  situation  of  the  whole  Moslem 
world  demands  united  action  and  a  united  front  on 
the  part  of  Christendom  is  incontrovertible,  but  how 
and  where  is  such  united  action  possible  ?  Are  there 
indications  that  the  Churches  of  Christendom  are 
drawing  closer  together  ;  that  there  is  mutual  under- 
standing, where  formerly  there  was  only  suspicion  ; 
that  it  is  possible  to  sink  some  of  our  differences  face 
to  face  with  such  a  peril  and  opportunity  ? 

My  desire  is  to  indicate  certain  lines  on  which 
Protestant  Christendom  at  least  may  take  the  initia- 
tive towards  this  consummation. 

I.  We  must  recognise  unity  in  scholarship  in  the 
study  of  this  problem. — As  Dr.  Francis  Brown  pointed 
out  so  ably  in  a  recent  number  of  The  Constructive 
Quarterly,  the  guild  of  scholarship  offers  oppor- 
tunities for  religious  fellowship,  in  which  our  very 
diversities  lead  to  enrichment  and  do  not  tend  to 
separation,  but  to  mutual  understanding.  What 
he  indicated  as  true  for  Christian  scholarship  in 
general  applies  also,  and  in  a  special  way,  to  the  study 
of  Islam,  both  as  a  religious  system  and  in  its  modern 
development  as  a  missionary  problem.  No  student 
of  the  subject  can  help  acknowledging  the  magnificent 
contribution  already  made  by  the  various  branches 
of  the  Christian  Church,  and  by  many  outside  its 
bounds,  for  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  history 
and  character  of  this  great  non-Christian  faith.  Surely 
we  may  see  in  this  work  of  preparation  a  special 
providence  of  God.  Others  have  laboured  in  this 


AND  ISLAM  45 

field  of  scholarship,  and  the  missionary  has  entered 
into  their  labours.  Not  to  speak  of  the  great  Semitic 
scholars  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  earlier 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  how  much  we  owe  to 
living  leaders  in  the  world  of  thought  on  Islam  such 
as  Noldeke,  Goldziher,  Snouck  Hurgronje,  Hart- 
mann,  Becker,  MacDonald,  Margoliouth,  Prince 
Caetani,  Lammens,  Cheikho,  Le  Chatelier,  Houtsma, 
Arnold,  Seligsohn,  Casanova,  Schaade,  Grimme, 
Sayous,  Montet,  and  Massignon,  not  to  mention 
others. 

Many  of  the  scholars  mentioned  belong  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  whose  missions  to  Moslems  bear  no 
comparison  with  those  of  Protestant  Societies  either 
in  extent  or  efficiency,  they  themselves  being  judges. 
But  Protestant  Christendom  owes,,  a  large  debt  to 
Roman  Catholic  scholarship  for  the  critical  study  of 
Islam.  The  splendid  work  done  at  Beirut  by  the 
Jesuit  fathers  of  the  Faculte*  Orientale  by  publishing 
the  Arabic  Pre-Islamic  Christian  poetry,  and  by  the 
investigation  of  the  sources  of  Islam,  is  only  a  single 
example  of  the  possibilities  of  scholarly  co-operation. 
Prince  Leone  Caetani  and  Henri  Lammens  working  at 
Rome  are  placing  at  the  disposal  of  every  student  of 
Islam  all  the  early  sources  with  critical  care  ;  the 
former  in  his  massive  work  Annali  Dell9  Islam,  in 
fifteen  quarto  volumes,  the  latter  in  his  Berceau 
de  VIslam,  equally  ambitious  and  thorough.  When 
we  note  how  Lammens  employs  the  higher  critical 
method  to  sift  Moslem  tradition  and  to  set  the  Koran 
and  Mohammed  before  us  in  their  real  character,  we 
not  only  welcome  his  co-operation,  but  are  glad  to  see 
on  the  title-page  vignette  :  "  Verbum  Domini  Manet 
in  Aeternam"  We  must  compel  educated  Moslems 
to  go  back  to  the  sources  of  their  spurious  revelation 


46          A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM 

that  they  may  accept  that  Word  of  God  from  us  and 
with  us. 

Students  of  Islam  are  learning  to  recognise  the 
missionary  work  done  among  Moslems  long  before  the 
days  of  Henry  Martyn  and  long  before  the  Reforma- 
tion. God  left  not  Himself  without  a  witness.  When 
two  biographies  of  Raymond  Lull  appeared  from  the 
press  almost  simultaneously  in  New  York  (1902)  and 
in  London  (1903),  both  the  Protestant  writers  seemed 
to  be  in  ignorance  that  the  one  published  in  a  series 
of  lives  of  the  saints  at  Paris  in  1900,  Le  Bienheureux 
Raymond  Lull  par  Marius  Andre,  was  already  in  its 
second  edition.  So  attention  was  directed  from  three 
quarters  to  that  first  missionary  among  Moslems  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  whom  Dr.  Eugene  Stock  designates 
as  the  greatest,  and  who  still  lives  on.  But  the 
devotees  of  Lull  might  well  turn  to  Denmark,  and  in 
the  perusal  of  Dr.  Christian  H.  Kalkar's  Kirken 
Virksomhed  blandt  Muhammedanerne  indtil  Constanti- 
noples  Frohering  (Copenhagen,  1884),  learn  that  Lull 
was  not  a  pioneer  only,  but  an  apostolic  successor  to 
many  who  came  long  before. 

It  is  this  common  forum  of  thought,  this  unity  of 
scholarship,  which  will  deliver  us  from  provincialism 
and  sectarianism  in  facing  the  Moslem  problem.  We 
have  much  to  learn  from  the  past  and  from  each  other. 
The  missionary  to  Moslems  who  remains  in  ignorance 
of  this  great  common  literary  heritage  impoverishes 
himself. 

II.  Our  common  faith  is  assailed  by  Islam  and  needs 
our  united  defence. — Most  of  the  great  common  creeds 
of  Christendom  were  in  existence  before  Islam  arose. 
The  opposition  of  the  Moslem  mind  and  heart  is 
directed  chiefly  against  that  on  which  all  the  Churches, 


AND  ISLAM  47 

East  and  West,  agree.  The  very  character  of  the 
conflict,  therefore,  calls  for  unity.  The  one  supreme 
and  final  revelation  of  God  in  our  common  Scriptures 
is  opposed  to  the  Koran  :  one  Lord,  one  Faith,  one 
Baptism,  one  God  and  Father  —  is  opposed  to 
Mohammed  and  his  teaching.  The  issues  that  unite 
us  are  so  fundamental  that  those  which  divide  us 
seem  at  times  almost  secondary.  There  is  hardly 
an  important  fact  concerning  the  person,  life,  and 
work  of  Our  Saviour  which  is  not  ignored,  perverted, 
or  denied  by  Islam.  In  spite  of  all  that  can  be  said 
against  any  of  the  Oriental  Churches  in  regard  to 
errors  of  doctrine,  Meredith's  simile  applies,  and 

"  Sharp  as  a  sickle  is  the  edge  of  shade  and  shine  " 

between  them  and  Islam. 

When  in  Africa  or  Asia  the  true  disciples  of  Christ 
face  Islam  and  fight  for  the  faith  once  for  all  delivered 
to  the  saints,  they  are  all  Christians,  Churchmen,  and 
Catholics  in  the  deepest  sense  of  those  words. 
Christians  because  they  follow  Christ,  not  Mohammed; 
Churchmen  because  they  are  incorporated  into  His 
mystical  body  and  not  into  the  earthly  fellowship 
of  a  Moslem  brotherhood  ;  Catholics  because  they 
belong  to  that  Church  which  existed  before  the 
Hegira  and  will  exist  even  after  Islam  is  forgotten 
in  Arabia,  the  cradle  of  its  birth.  It  strengthens 
one's  faith  and  love  to  confess  in  strategic  centres 
like  Cairo  and  Constantinople  :  "  /  believe  in  the 
Holy  Catholic  Church"  In  conflict  with  Islam  the 
Church  will  gain  a  stronger  grip  on  the  great  funda- 
mentals of  the  Christian  faith.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Incarnation,  the  Atonement,  and  the  JTrjaity.  will 
become  more  and  more  the  subject  of  special  study 
as  we  preach  to  Moslems.  In  reading  the  Gospel 


48          A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM 

with  and  to  Moslems,  it  becomes  evident  more  and 
more  to  every  missionary  that  the  death  of  Christ, 
which  is  denied  in  Islam,  occupies  the  supreme 
place  in  the  Gospels  and  in  the  Epistles  as  the  very 
heart  of  God's  revelation  to  man.  The  same  is  true 
in  regard  to  the  nature  and  evidences  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ,  and  our  faith  in  the  character 
of  the  Godhead,  as  compared  with  the  barren 
monotheism  of  Islam. 

In  the  second  place,  the  Christian  Church  Catholic 
will  be  forced  to  work  out  her  theology  and  creeds 
experientially  hi  contact  and  conflict  with  Unitarian, 
deistic  Islam.  In  this  respect  the  Mohammedan 
problem  may  possibly  be  as  life  from  the  dead  to 
the  Oriental  Churches,  when  they  face  its  real  and 
spiritual  issues  and  become  conscious  of  the  duty 
of  evangelism.  The  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation  and 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  are  not  pieces  of  polished  armoury 
to  be  kept  on  exhibition  in  proof  of  our  orthodoxy 
but  are  vital  to  the  very  life  of  the  Christian. 

In  view  of  all  this,  would  it  not  be  wise  for  the 
Protestant  Churches  in  facing  the  Moslem  problem 
to  recognise  more  than  we  have  yet  done  our  unity 
of  faith  with  each  other  and  with  other  Churches — 
Churches  that  withstood  the  terrific  impact  of  Islam 
before  the  Reformation,  and  bore  witness  to  the 
truth,  sealing  it  by  the  life-blood  of  countless 
martyrs  ? 

III.  We  can  show  a  united  front  by  a  strategic 
survey  and  occupation  of  the  field. — The  unoccu- 
pied mission  fields  in  Asia  and  Africa  were  largely 
occupied  or  are  being  pre-occupied  now  by  Islam. 
There  are  no  Protestant  missions  among  the 
twenty  million  Moslems  of  the  Russian  Empire ; 


AND  ISLAM  49 

but  when  we  remember  the  splendid  work  done 
by  Nicolas  Swano witch  Ilminsky,  who  died  27th 
December  1891,  we  cannot  help  hoping  that  the 
Orthodox  Church  of  Russia  will  continue  and  extend 
what  he  so  nobly  began. 

Bokhara,  Chinese  Turkestan,  Afghanistan,  and 
other  regions  in  Central  Asia  still  await  pioneer 
effort  among  Moslems.  Surely,  in  the  occupation 
of  these  territories,  there  is  abundant  room  for  the 
exercise  of  the  laws  of  charity  and  comity  so  that 
the  Moslem  world  may  not  witness  the  spectacle  of 
sectarian  division  or  mere  proselytism  ! 

The  same  holds  true  of  the  great  island  world  of 
Malaysia,  with  its  thirty-five  million  Moslem  popula- 
tion. And  if  the  new  survey  now  being  attempted 
by  the  Edinburgh  Continuation  Committee  of  the 
actual  distribution  and  present-day  spread  of  Islam 
in  the  Dark  Continent  is  to  have  a  practical  value, 
this  at  least  should  be  one  of  its  results,  namely,  a 
recognition  of  territory  occupied  by  Roman  Catholic 
missions  among  pagan  races  on  the  border-marches 
of  Islam. 

Surely  in  our  attempt  to  stem  the  tide  of  Islam  we 
must  reckon  with  such  enterprises  as  those  conducted 
by  the  "  White  Fathers  "  at  Timbuctoo,  and  in  the 
French  Sahara.  There  are  indications  that  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  is  willing  to  co-operate  in 
such  division  of  territory  and  to  follow  the  laws  of 
comity  where  they  concern  the  winning  of  pagan 
races  in  territory  threatened  by  Islam.  The  urgency 
of  the  situation  demands  emphasis  of  this  principle, 
for  the  unoccupied  fields  of  the  world  have  a  claim 
of  peculiar  weight  upon  the  Church  in  this  twentieth 
century.  By  far  the  largest  proportion  of  the 
wholly  untouched  areas  and  populations  in  Africa 
4 


50         A  UNITED  CHRISTENDOM 

are  Moslem.  Indeed,  as  the  Edinburgh  Report 
says  :  "  The  greater  part  of  the  Mohammedan 
world  is  practically  unoccupied  "  (vol.  i.  p.  366). 

Has  not  every  part  of  Christendom  a  responsibility 
toward  this  world  to-day  ?  Can  that  responsibility 
be  met  except  by  mutual  agreement,  wholehearted 
sympathy,  and  a  recognition  of  God's  Providence  in 
the  present  political  division  of  Moslem  territory  in 
Africa  among  the  powers  of  Europe  ?  The  Crucifix 
and  the  Cross  never  have  so  much  in  common  as 
when  you  compare  them  with  the  Crescent.  Has 
not  the  mantle  of  Raymond  Lull  fallen  also  on  the 
"  White  Fathers  "  ? 

I  will  close  with  two  personal  experiences  of  the 
possibility  of  closer  fellowship. 

A  Roman  Catholic  friend  of  mine  and  of  the  work 
among  Mohammedans  wrote  from  Paris  during  last 
year  : 

"  There  is  a  word  4  prayer '  in  your  letter  very  dear 
to  my  heart.  Though  bound  by  temporal  bands  to  the 
French  Board  of  Education,  I  wait  with  patient  and  silent 
hope  the  hour  when  I  shall  more  freely  and  more  openly 
work  for  what  I  pray  for  since  many  years  every  day— 
'  Thy  Kingdom  come.'  I  know  you  spend  all  your 
strength  and  life  for  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  I  pray  Him  in 
the  Holy  Communion  of  the  Church  that  He  may  give 
you  for  ever  the  theological  trinity  of  supernatural 
virtues,  Faith,  Hope,  and  Love,  that  syndrome  of  blessings 
which  make  the  canonised  saints  of  the  triumphant 
Church.  I  am  happy  that  you  were  engaged  about  the 
life  of  Beatus  R.  Lullius — he  was  a  great  lover  of  the 
Passion,  and  he  gained  the  crowning  glory  of  martyrdom 
the  29th  of  June ;  it  will  be  next  year  his  600th  anni- 
versary. ...  As  for  prayer,  the  Catholic  Church  has 
taught  me  to  say  the  Pater  Noster  for  all  my  brethren, 
and  that  is  the  best  in  which  I  can  help  you." 


AND  ISLAM  51 

Does  not  such  a  letter  show  the  possibilities  of  real 
union  in  a  life  of  prayer  for  the  Moslem  world  ? 

And  I  also  remember  with  peculiar  pleasure  a 
visit  made  to  the  University  of  Munich  in  company 
with  Pastor  Friedrich  Wiirz,  of  Basel,  in  1913,  and 
our  delightful  interview  with  Professor  Herbert 
Grimme,  a  leading  student  of  Islam.  His  know- 
ledge of  the  real  heart  of  the  Moslem  missionary 
problem,  his  sympathy  with  Protestant  efforts,  and 
his  advocacy  of  closer  co-operation,  especially  in 
Africa,  were  a  delightful  surprise  to  us  both. 

I  cannot  help,  even  at  the  risk  of  inviting  criticism, 
quoting  the  words  of  Bishop  Brent  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  spoken  at  the  Edinburgh  Missionary  Con- 
ference ;  they  apply  also  to  the  Moslem  problem  : 

"  I  want  to  speak  of  an  extremely  difficult  thing.  There 
is  a  wonderful,  and  great,  and  venerable  Church  sitting 
apart  to-day  in  an  aloofness  that  is  more  pathetic  than  it 
is  splendid.  It  is  not  co-operating  with  us  as  we  can 
compel  it  to  co-operate,  that  is,  if  we  set  our  minds  upon 
it.  Shall  we  wait  for  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to 
lead  us,  or  shall  you  and  I  take  the  lead  and  compel  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  come  to  us  ?  They  will  never 
come  to  us  until  we  go  to  them.  I  have  learned  the 
lesson  of  aloofness.  I  was  one  who  at  a  certain  period 
of  my  life  did  sit  aloof,  and  I  was  poor  and  maimed  as 
long  as  I  did  it.  I  thank  God  that  the  Anglican  Com- 
munion is  coming  into  such  close  union  with  the  rest  of 
Christian  workers.  I  can  bear  testimony  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  possible  for  us  in  a  really  practicable  way  to  co- 
operate with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  remember 
that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  does  not  mean  the 
Vatican  or  the  various  hierarchies,  but  the  great  mass 
of  devout  people  we  are  constantly  in  touch  with.  We 
can  affect  them,  we  can  so  melt  their  minds  as  to  affect 
the  central  body.  You  know  what  the  coppersmith  does 


52        CHRISTENDOM  AND  ISLAM 

when  he  wants  to  buckle  a  plate.  He  hits  everywhere 
but  the  centre,  and  at  last  the  centre  responds.  So  let  it 
be  with  us  in  our  relation  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church." 

When  we  consider  the  degradation  of  Islam  in 
lands  like  Morocco,  its  disintegration  in  Persia,  its 
stagnation  in  Arabia,  its  attempted  reformation  in 
Egypt  and  India,  its  neglect  in  China,  and  the 
encroachment  of  Islam  on  all  the  pagan  tribes  of 
Africa — shall  we  not  pray  and  labour  for  a  closer 
co-operation  of  all  the  forces  of  Christianity,  and 
for  a  united  Christendom  in  its  mission  to  Islam  ? 


CHAPTER  III 

A  CENSUS  OF  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD 


53 


CHAPTER   III 

A  CENSUS  OF  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD 
[Compiled  before  the  War  0/1914] 

LT  was  pointed  out  at  the  Lucknow  Conference, 
1911,  that  the  total  population  of  the  Moslem  world 
is  still  a  matter  of  conjecture  rather  than  of  actual 
statistics.  The  discrepancies  in  the  different  statistical 
surveys  attempted  by  various  authorities  are  as 
disconcerting  as  they  are  surprising.  Most  of  the 
estimates  have  been  made  by  Western  writers,  al- 
though we  have  one  or  two  instances  of  an  attempted 
census  by  the  Moslems  themselves.  In  El  Moayyad 
(Cairo)  for  9th  November  1909,  the  total  population 
of  the  Moslem  world  is  given  at  270,000,000 ;  but  it 
is  evident  that  the  figures  are  largely  guesswork,  as 
the  numbers  in  China  are  put  at  40,000,000,  in  Africa 
at  70,000,000,  and  in  Russia  as  high  as  24,000,000. 
In  another  case,  to  which  Dr.  H.  H.  Jessup  called 
attention,  the  Sublime  Porte,  under  the  Hamidian 
regime,  carefully  copied  a  survey  of  the  Moslem  world 
published  in  the  Missionary  Review  of  the  World  in 
1898,  and  gave  it  as  an  accurate  census  taken  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Sultan  and  at  his  expense  ! 

The  following  table  gives  the  totals  of  the  Moslem 
world  population  from  various  sources  : 

Brockhaus,  Konvers.-Lexikon,  1894  . .     175,000,000 

Hubert  Jansen,  Verbreitung  des  Mams,  1897  259,680,672 

66 


56  A  CENSUS  OF  THE 

S.  M.  Zwemer  (Missionary  Review  of  the  World), 

1898 196,491,842 

Allgemeine  Missions  Zeitschrifl,  1902          . .  175,290,000 

H.  Wichmann,  in  Justus  Perthes'  Atlas,  1903  240,000,000 

Encyclopedia  of  Missions,  1904        ..          ..  193,550,000 
The  Mohammedan  World  of  To-day  (Cairo 

Conference,  1906) 232,996,170 

Martin  Hartmann,  1910        223,985,780 

C.  H.  Becker,  in  Baedecker's  Egypt  (last 

German  edition)     . .          . .          . .          . .  260,000,000 

Lucknow  Conference  Report,  1911  . .  200,000,000 

The  most  detailed  statistics  can  be  found  in  Jansen, 
but  they  are  not  reliable  and  are  generally  over- 
estimated, especially  in  regard  to  Africa.  Hart- 
mann's  statistics  are  excessive  in  regard  to  Siam, 
China,  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  as  well  as  the 
German  Colonies  in  Africa,  and  Abyssinia,  where  he 
finds  no  less  than  800,000  Mohammedans  !  Gener- 
ally speaking,  the  population  of  countries  such  as 
Morocco,  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Northern  Equatorial 
Africa,  where  there  are  large  desert  tracts,  has  been 
estimated  too  high. 

In  regard  to  two  large  areas  of  the  Moslem  world, 
we  are  able  to  speak  with  much  greater  accuracy  than 
has  hitherto  been  the  case.  Miss  Jenny  von  Mayer 
and  Madame  Bobrovnikoff  have  published  careful 
surveys  of  the  extent  and  character  of  Islam  in  the 
Russian  Empire,  based  on  Government  documents ; 
and  Mr.  Marshall  Broomhall,  in  his  Islam  in  China, 
shows  that  the  total  Moslem  population  in  the  Chinese 
Republic,  instead  of  being  twenty  or  thirty  millions, 
lies  somewhere  between  the  minimum  and  maximum 
figures  of  five  and  ten  millions.  With  the  lowest 
figure  the  careful  estimate  given  by  the  French 
Mission,  under  Commandant  D'Ollone,  practically 


MOSLEM  WORLD  57 

agrees  (Recherches  sur  les  Musulmans  Chinois,  Paris, 
1911) ;  although  some  of  the  missionaries  believe 
that  both  these  estimates  are  alike  too  low.  In  the 
case  of  India  and  Malaysia  we  have  later  statistics, 
based  on  the  new  census,  which  were  not  available 
previously.  The  careful  investigations  made  by 
Professor  D.  Westermann,  of  Berlin,  and  others, 
concerning  Islam  and  its  propagandism  in  Africa, 
enable  us  now  to  reduce  the  exaggerated  figures 
hitherto  accepted  for  some  portions  of  the  dark 
continent. 

All  this  makes  it  possible  now  to  give  a  better 
estimate,  we  believe,  than  has  yet  been  presented. 
The  accompanying  tables  give  in  every  case  our 
authorities  and  references.  Professor  Westermann 
is  responsible  for  Africa,  and  the  writer  for  the  rest 
of  the  world.  Where  no  definite  authority  is  given 
and  only  an  estimate  is  made,  it  is  always  conser- 
vative and  based  in  every  case  on  considerable 
correspondence  with  those  who  are  authorities  on 
the  subject. 

The  total  of  the  whole  world,  according  to  this 
new  estimate,  is  201,296,696.  Of  these,  90,478,111 
are  under  British  rule  or  protection,  and  76,596,219 
under  other  Western  or  Christian  Governments  in 
possession  of  colonies,  a  total  of  167,074,330,  equal 
to  83  per  cent.,  and  distributed  as  indicated  : 

DISTRIBUTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS 

Under  British  Rule  or  Occupation 

In  Africa  . .     22,606,344 

In  Asia     ..          ..     67,871,767 


Total    ..     90,478,111 


58  A  CENSUS  OF  THE 

Other  Western  or  Christian  Governments 

IN  AFRICA  : 

Belgium    . .  . .  60,000 

France      ..  ..  15,085,000 

Germany  . .  . .  1,480,000 

Italy         ..  ..  1,365,000 

Portugal  ..  ..  330,000 

Spain        . .  . .  130,000 

Abyssinia  and 

Liberia  . .  780,000 

19,230,000 

IN  ASIA  : 

United        States 

(Moros.)  . .  277,547 

Dutch  ..  ..  35,308,996 
French  ..  ..  232,000 
Russia  (Asia  and 

Europe)  . .     20,000,000 

55,818,548 

Europe      (outside 

Turkey)  . .       1,873,676 

America  . .         . .          174,000 

1,547,676 


76,596,219 

This  leaves  only  34,222,366  Mohammedans  not 
under  Western  governments.  Of  this  number  only 
13,278,800  are  under  the  Caliphate  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  or  only  six  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
Moslem  world  population. 

Another  fact  deserves  notice.  Professor  Mar- 
goliouth  states  (Mohammedanism,  p.  14)  that  "  Islam 
in  the  main  is  a  religion  of  the  heat  belt,  the  part  of 
the  earth's  surface  which  lies  between  30  degrees 
N.  latitude  and  30  degrees  S.  latitude,  with  a  mean 


MOSLEM  WORLD  59 

temperature  of  68°  F,"  and  quotes  Mr.  Alleyne  Ireland 
as  saying  :  "  During  the  past  five  hundred  years  the 
people  of  this  belt  have  added  nothing  whatever  to 
human  advancement.  Those  natives  of  the  tropics 
and  sub-tropics  who  have  not  been  under  direct 
European  influence  have  not  during  that  time  made 
a  single  contribution  of  the  first  importance  to  art, 
literature,  science,  manufacture,  or  invention  ;  they 
have  not  produced  an  engineer  or  a  chemist  or  a 
biologist  or  a  historian  or  a  painter  or  a  musician  of 
the  first  rank."  But  a  study  of  our  statistics  shows 
that  such  generalisations  are  rash,  for  Islam  has 
extended  far  to  the  north  and  south  of  this  heat 
belt,  and  has,  outside  this  area,  a  population  of  no 
less  than  66,208,796.  These  are  distributed  as 
follows  : 

OUTSIDE  THE  HEAT  BELT 

3,100,000  . .  . .  In  Morocco. 

4,175,000  . .  . .  „  Algeria. 

1,660,000  . .  . .  „  Tunis. 

2,398,320  . .  . .  „  Kashmir. 

5,500,000  ..  ..  „  Half  of  the  Punjab. 

20,000,000  . .  . .  „  Russia. 

6,315,000  . .  . .  „  Three-quarters  of  China. 

5,000,000  . .  . .  „  Afghanistan. 

12,278,000  . .  . .  „  Turkey  in  Asia. 

3,400,000  . .  . .  „  Three-quarters  of  Persia. 

2,373,676  . .  . .  „  Europe. 

8,000  . .  . .  „  America. 


66,208,796 


A  much  more  important  division  of  the  Moslem 
world  population  than  that  of  climate,  or  even  accord- 
ing to  government,  is  the  classification  of  Moslems  ac- 


60  A  CENSUS  OF  THE 

cording  to  the  character  of  their  beliefs  and  practices. 
Snouck  Hurgronje,  Warneck,  and  Simon  have  con- 
clusively shown  that  the  Mohammedans  of  Malaysia 
are  of  animistic  type  and  have  little  hi  common 
with  Moslems  as  we  know  them  in  North  Africa  or 
Arabia.  Of  the  total  number  who  call  themselves 
Moslems  we  must  reckon,  therefore,  that  60,000,000  in 
Africa,  Malaysia,  and  parts  of  India  belong  to  this 
animistic  type,  or,  in  the  words  of  Gottfried  Simon, 
are  really  "  heathen  Mohammedans."  The  Shiah 
sect  in  Persia  and  India  is  also  a  distinct  group, 
but  does  not  count  more  than  10,000,000.  Perhaps 
from  two  to  four  millions  of  the  Moslem  world  popula- 
tion in  Persia,  Turkey,  India,  and  Egypt  have  so  far 
adopted  Western  education  and  broken  away  from 
the  old  Islamic  standards  of  the  orthodox  tradition 
that  they  should  be  separately  classified  also  as  New 
School  Moslems.  This  would  leave  about  126,000,000 
orthodox  Moslems  who  follow  the  Sunna  of  the 
Prophet,  and  are  themselves  cognisant  of  the  exist- 
ence and  the  distinctions  of  the  four  great  schools — 
Hanifi,  Maliki,  Shafi,  Hanbali.  The  Hanifi  are  in 
the  great  majority  and  number  perhaps  85  millions, 
chiefly  in  Turkey,  India,  Russia,  and  Central  Asia. 
The  Maliki  school  is  predominant  in  Upper  Egypt 
and  North  Africa  and  numbers  about  16  millions. 
The  Shafts  are  found  chiefly  in  Lower  Egypt,  Southern 
India,  and  Malaysia,  numbering  about  24  millions, 
while  the  Hanbali  are  found  mostly  in  Central  and 
Eastern  Arabia  and  do  not  number  over  one  million. 
We  now  present  the  tables  of  population,  beginning 
with  Africa  : 


MOSLEM  WORLD  61 

AFRICA 
BELGIAN  POSSESSIONS 

Sources  (a)  for  Total  Popula- 

Name  of  Total          Mohammedan     tion,  (t>)  for  Mohammedan 

Country.  Population.       Population.          Population ;  and  other 

Remarks. 

Belgian  Congo    15  to  20,000,000          60,000  (a)  Le  Mouvement  Geo- 

graphique,  1912.  H. 
(b)  C.  Janssen :  Pro- 
vince Orientale  et 
Uelle,  11,000;  B. 
Struck  (whole  Belg. 
Congo),  57,000. 

PORTUGUESE  POSSESSIONS 

Guinea          . .          . .        600,000       200,000  (a)  H.  :   820,000. 

(b)  Fula  and  Mandingo 
are  Mohammedans. 

S.  Thome  and  Principe       69,000  . .         H. 

Angola          . .          . .     4,200,000  . .         H. 

East  Africa    .          . .     3,120,000        130,000  (a)  H. 

SPANISH  POSSESSIONS 

Guinea          ..          ..        173,846  ..         H. 

Rio  de  Oro  . .          ..        130,000        130,000  H. 

INDEPENDENT  COUNTRIES 

Abyssinia     ..          ..     8,000,000       500,000  (a)  H.  :  Estimate  prob- 
ably too  high. 
(b)  J.  Richter,  in  War- 
neck's        Missionsge- 
schichte,  1910,  p.  336, 
Remark  :  333,000. 

Liberia         . .          . .     1,200,000       280,000  H.   Johnston,  Liberia, 

London,  1906. 

ITALIAN  POSSESSIONS 

Libya  . .          . .        723,000       690,000  (a)  H. 

Eritrea         . .          . .        279,551        275,000  (a)  H. 
Somali          . .         . .        400,000       400,000  H. 


1,365,000 


62 


A  CENSUS  OF  THE 


Guine*  Fran9ais«    . .     1,935,000 


Haut  S6negal  Niger      5,310,000 


FRENCH  POSSESSIONS 

Sources  (a)  for  Total  Popula- 

Name  of  Total          Mohammedan     tion,  (b)  for  Mohammedan 

Country.  Population.       Population.          Population ;  and  other 

Remarks. 

Le  Senegal  . .          . .     1,300,000       650,000  (a)     A.F.     (b)     Purely 

Moh.  :  Fula  79,000, 
Toucouleur  158,000, 
almost  purely  Moh.  : 
Wolof  407,000. — Del.: 
500,000  Moh. 

1,000,000  (a)  A.F.  ;  (b)  Purely 
Moh.  :  Fula  650,000  ; 
rest  of  pop.  predomi- 
nantly heathen,  but 
Islam  rapidly  increas- 
ing. Del.  250,000  Moh. 
2,000,000  (a)  A.F.  ;  (b)  Del. 
844,450  ;  and  Terri- 
toire  Militaire  du 
Niger  600,000. 

225,000  A.F. ;  H.  Del. :  600,000. 
250,000  (a)  A.F.  ;   H. 

(6)  Del.  250,000. 
80,000  (a)  A.F.  ;   H. 

(b)  Del.  50,000  ;  Pegard 

200,000. 

1,500,000  (a)    H.         (b)    Pegard 
1,000,000  in  Territoire 
Militaire  du  Tchad. 
200,000  H. 

75,000  (a)  H.  (b)  The  Moslem 
World,  July  1913,  p. 
261,    Remark.        P6- 
gard  :    1700. 
(a)  H. 
(a)  H. 

3,100,000  (a)  Koloniale  Rund- 
schau, Oct.  1913,  p.  624,  from 
Bulletin  du  Comite  I'Afrique 
Francaise,  1913,  and  La 
Quinzaine  Coloniale,  1913. 
(b)  from  about  70-100,000  Jews, 
5-10,000  Christians,  R.G.G. 
300,000  Jews,  1 0,000 Christians. 


Mauritanie  . 
Cote  d'lvoire 

Dahomey     .  . 


225,000 
1,265,000 

878,000 


Afrique  Equa-         7  to  9,000,000 

toriale  Fran- 

9aise 

Somali          . .          . .        208,000 
Madagascar..          ..     3,104,000 


Reunion 
Comores 
Morocco 


173,822 

97,700 

3,220,000 


90,000 
80000 


MOSLEM  WORLD 


63 


Name  of 
Country. 


Algeria 
Tunis 


Togo.. 


Kamerun 


Deutsch- 

Sudwestafrika 
Deutsch- 

Ostarika 


Total 
Population. 

5,563,828 
1,904,551 


Sources  (a)  for  Total  Popula- 
Mohammedan     tion,  (b)  for  Mohammedan 
Population.          Population  ;  and  other 
Remarks. 


4,175,000  (a)  H. 
1,660,000  (a)  H. 


(*) 
(*) 


H. 
H. 


15,085,000 


GERMAN  POSSESSIONS 


1,000,000 


3,300,000 


103,000 


7,516,000 


60,000  (a)  A.J.,  1909-10,  etc. 

(6)      A.J.,      1910-11  : 

14,000  indigenous  (im 

Schutzbegiet      heim- 

ische)  Moh. 

720,000  (a)  A.J.,  1909-10,  etc. 
(b)    Passarge    in    Das 
Deutsche        Kolonial- 
reich,  tomei.  p.  511. 


700,000  (a)  A.J.  (6)  A.J.,  1911- 
12,  300,000 ;  Kar- 
stedt,  1 1  millions. 


1,480,000 


BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  AND  COUNTRIES  UNDER  BRITISH 
INFLUENCE 


Gambia        . .         . .        152,000 
Sierra  Leone  . .     1,327,000 

Gold  Coast  ..          ..     1,504,000 


Northern  8  to  9,000,000 

Nigeria 
Southern  Nigeria    . .     7,858,000 


Somaliland  . .          . .        346,805 
B.  East  Africa       3  to  4,000,000 


120,000  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913. 
250,000  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913. 
180,  ooo  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913. 

(&)    T.   P.   Rodger,   in 
Journal  of  the  African 
Society,       7909-19x0, 
p.  14,  gives  100,000. 
7,000,000  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913. 

2,000,000  (a)  C.O.L.  1913. 

(b)   Cf.   African  Mail, 
29.  8.  1913. 

345,000  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913  ;   H. 
500,000  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913  J  H. 


64 


A  CENSUS  OF  THE 


Name  of 
Country. 

Uganda 
Nyasaland   . . 
Zanzibar,  Pemba 
Mauritius  and 

Seychelles 
Cape  Province 


Natal 

Orange 

Transvaal 

Basutoland 

Bechuana 

Swaziland 

Rhodesia 

Egypt 

Sudan 


Sources  (a)  for  Total  Popula- 

Total          Mohammedan     tion,  (b)  for  Mohammedan 
Population.       Population.          Population  ;  and  other 

Remarks. 

2,843,000  600,000  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913. 

1,000,000  60,000  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913. 

198,914  190,000  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913  ;   H. 

408,000  41,000  (a)  C.O.L.,  1913  ;   H. 


2,564,965          24,189 


1,194,043 

528,174 

1,686,212 


13.475 

47 

8,193 


406,000  8,000 

126,000  8,000 

101,700  8,000 

1,594,000  8,000 

11,287,359  10,269,445 

2,000,000     1,200,000 


Total  for  Africa 


22,809,349 
42,039,349 


(a)  C.O.L.,  1913  ;   H. 

(b)  Idem,  and   Census 
1911. 

(a)  C.O.L.,  1913. 

(b)  Census  1911. 

(a)  C.O.L.,  1913. 

(b)  Census  1911. 
(«)  C.O.L.,  1913. 
(b)  Census  1911. 

(a)  C.O.L.,  1913  ;   H. 

(a)  C.O.L.,  1913  ;   H. 

(a)  C.O.L.,  1913  ;   H. 

(a)  C.O.L.,  1913  ;   H. 

(a)  H.     (b)  H. 

(a)  "  The  Anglo-Egyp- 
tian Sudan." 

(6)  J.  Richter,  in  War- 
neck's  Missionsge- 
schichte,  1910,  p.  336, 

Remark  :   1,000,000 


REMARKS 
Abbreviations  : 
A.F.—Annuaire    du    Gouvernement     General     de    VAfrique 

Franpatse.     Paris,  1912. 
A.].=Die  deutschen  Schutzgebiete  in  Afrika  und  der  Sudsee. 

Amtliche  Jahresberichte.     Berlin. 
Census  i9ii=Census  1911.     Annexures  to  General  Report. 

Part  VI.,  Religions  of  the  People.     Pretoria,  1912. 
C.O.L.  =Colonial  Office  List.     London,  1913. 
Del.  =M.  Delafosse,  in  Revue  du  Monde  Musulman,  tome  ii. 

(1910)  p.  41  ff. 


MOSLEM  WORLD  65 

H .  =Otto  Hiibner's  Geographisch-Statistische  Tabellen.    Frank- 

fort-a-Main,  1913. 
R.G.G.  —Die  Religion  in  Geschichte  und  Gegenwart.    Tubingen, 

1909  ff. 

2.  The  information  given  under  C.  Janssen  (of  Brussels,  formerly 
Governor-General  of  the  Congo  State),  B.  Struck  (of  Dresden),  Dr. 
Karstedt  (of  Berlin),  P.  Pegard  (of  Paris),  are  personal  communi- 
cations, for  which  I  have  to  express  my  sincere  thanks.     Mr.  Struck 
besides  has  given  me  several  valuable  suggestions. 

3.  Fairly  accurate  data  as  to  the  number  of  Mohammedans  are 
obtainable — (a)    where    census    returns    or    official    estimates    are 
available — e.g.  in  North  Africa  and  the  Union  of  South  Africa  ; 
(6)  where  the  population  of  a  country  is  entirely  or  almost  entirely 
Mohammedan  ;    (c)  where  whole  particular   peoples,  such  as  the 
Haussa  and  Fula,  have  accepted  Islam,  or  the  great  majority  of  a 
population  has  done  so,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Wolof  or  Mandingo, 
and  their  numbers  are  known.     For  the  rest,  the  statistics  here 
given  are  based  upon  the  writer's  estimates,   which  have  been 
founded  on  recent  literature  on  the  subject  or  derived  by  com- 
parison with  the  population  of  neighbouring  countries  for  which 
accurate  statistics  are  available. 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  many  of  the  border  marches  of  Islam 
the  boundaries  between  heathenism  and  Islam  are  completely  lost ; 
the  estimates  are,  therefore,  in  some  cases  arbitrary,  and  even 
experts  differ  greatly  in  their  estimates. 

4.  Earlier  estimates  without  exception  run  into  higher  figures 
than  those  here  given  ;    even  the  most  recent  publications  (by 
Becker,  Hartmann,  Margoliouth,  Richter)  vary  between  a  total  of 
53  and  76  millions.     This  over-estimate  is  due  for  the  most  part 
to  the  fact  that  the  population  of  many  parts  of  Africa  was  set  at 
too  high  a  figure  (e.g.  Morocco,  6  to  10  millions  instead  of  3,200,000  ; 
Darfur,  3,500,000  instead  of  about  600,000;    Wadai  2  to  3,500,000 
instead  of  1,000,000). 

5.  Estimates   that   disagree   with   mine   as   to   the   number   of 
Mohammedans  in  individual  countries  I  have  only  given  when  they 
are  new,  and  their  accuracy  bears  a  special  semblance  of  probability , 
or  when  they  are  specially  worthy  of  attention. 

6.  In  most  countries,  where  the  population  is  still  partly  heathen, 
Islam  is  gaming  ground. 


66 


A  CENSUS  OF  THE 


ASIA 
A. — UNDER  FOREIGN  RULE 


Country. 

Aden,  Perim,  Sokotra, 

Kuria  Muria,  etc. 
Bahrein  Islands  . . 
British  Borneo 
Ceylon 
Maldive  Islands  . . 


British  Empire 

Total  Moslem 

Population.  Population. 

58,165  56,000 


Authority. 

S.Y.B. 


90,000 
208,183 

4.105,535 
50,000 


89,000  S.Y.B. 

150,000  S.Y.B.  est. 

276,361  S.Y.B. 

50,000  S.Y.B. 


Ajmer-Merwara 

Andamans  and  Nicobars 

Baluchistan 

Bengal 

Bombay  Presidency 

Burma 

Central  Provinces  and 

Berar 
Coorg 

E.  Bengal  and  Assam    . . 
Madras 
North-West  Frontier 

Province  (Districts 

and    Administered 

Territories) 
Punjab 
United  Provinces  of  Agra 

and  Oudh 
Baluchistan  States 
Baroda  State 
Bengal  States 
Bombay  States 
Central  India  Agency    . . 
Cent.  Provinces  States  . . 
E.  Bengal  and  Assam  States 
Hyderabad  State 
Kashmir  State 
Madras  State 
Mysore  State 

North-West  Frontier  Prov- 
ince (Agencies  and  Tribal 

Areas) 


ndencies  (not 

including  Aden] 

501,395 

81,035 

26,459 

4,580 

414,412 

377.333 

52,668,269 

9.385.763 

19,626,477 

3.978.320 

12,115,217 

420,777 

13.916,308 

564,909 

174,976 

13,143 

34,018,527 

20,157.345 

41,405,404 

2,740,408 

2,196,933 

2,039,994 

19,974.956 

10,955,721 

47,182,044 

6,658,373 

396,432 

381,428 

2,032,798 

160,887 

4,538,i6i 

199,133 

7,411,675 

877,431 

9,356,980 

511,200 

2,117,002 

20,120 

s    575.835 

79,457 

13,374,676 

1,380,990 

3,158,126 

2,398,320 

4,811,841 

314,498 

5,806,193 

314,494 

13,538 

9,605 

MOSLEM  WORLD  67 


Punjab  States     ..          ..  4,212,794  1,319,756 

Rajputana  Agency         .  .  10,530,432  985,825 

Sikkim      .  .          .  .          .  .  87,920  44 

United  Provinces  States  832,036  246,358 


313,477,816       66,577,247     S.Y.B. 


Federated  Malay  States          1,036,999  406,860     East  &  West, 

July  1913- 
Straits  Settlements        . .          732,510  266,299  „ 


Total  ..  67,871,767 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Java  and  Madura  . .     30,098,00s1    29,627,557     Official  Stat., 

The  Hague. 
Sumatra   . .          . .          . .       4,029,503         3,275,000     R.M.M.,    vol. 

vii.  p.  112. 

Borneo 1,233,655  985,440 

Celebes     ..          ..          ..          851,905  640,000     Enc.  of  Islam, 

p.  830  (est.). 
Banka  and  Dependencies          115,189  70,853     Enc.  of  Islam, 

p.  649. 
Riou  and  Dependencies  112,216  93,434     R.M.M.,    vol. 

vii.  p.  112. 
Billiton     . .          . .          . .  36,858  34,200          „       „ 

Amboine  and  Dependencies       299,604  71,204  ,,       ,, 

Ternate,  New  Guinea  and          607,906  108,240  ,,       ,, 

Dependencies  . .    (S.Y.B.) 

Timor  and  Dependencies  308,600  34,650  ,,       ,, 

Bali  and  Lombok          . .          523,535  368,418  ,,       „ 


Total  . .  35,308,996 

American  Colonies 

Philippine  Islands          . .       8,600,000  277,547     R.M.M.,    vol. 

iv.  p.  24. 


Total  ..          ..  277,547 

1  Statistics   of   total   population   from   Official   Statistics. — The 
Hague,  1912. 


68 


A  CENSUS  OF  THE 


French  Possessions 


Country.  PopiSSion. 

Annam,  Cambodia,  Cochin-  16,31 7,000 
China,  Tonking,  Laos,  277,000 
Pondicherry  (India) 


Moslem 
Population. 

232,000 


Authority. 

R.M.M.,    vol. 
i.  p.  28. 


Russia  in  Asia  and  Europe 


Including  Bokhara 


167,003,400      20,000,000     M.W.,  vol. 


(1,250,000)  and  Khiva 
(800,000) 


p.  20. 


Turkey  in  Asia 


Asia  Minor 

.  .     10,509,200 

7,179,900     S.Y.B. 

Armenia  and  Kurdistan         2,470,900 

i,795,8oo     S.Y.B. 

Mesopotamia 

2,000,000 

1,200,000     C.C.R.  (est.) 

Syria 

3,67'>,ioo 

1,053,100     C.C.R.  (est.) 

Arabia  (Hejaz, 

Yemen)  .  .       1,050,000 

1,050,000     S.Y.B. 

Total 

19,705,200 

12,278,800 

B.  —  INDEPENDENT  COUNTRIES 

2,500,000 

2,500,000     Est.  of  R.G.S. 

Afghanistan 

5,900,000 

5,000,000     S.Y.B.      and 

M.W.,  vol. 

ii.  p.  133. 

Chinese  Empire 

Kansu 

.  .     10,385,376 

3,500,000 

Shensi 

8,450,182 

500,000 

Shansi 

12,200,456 

25,000 

Chihli 

20,937,000 

1,000,000 

Shangtung 

.  .     38,247,900 

200,000 

Honan 

.  .     35,316,800 

250,000 

Kiangsi     .  . 

..     26,532,125 

2,500 

Kiangsu   .  . 

.  .     13,980,235 

250,000 

Szechwan 

.  .     68,724,890 

250,000 

Kweichow 

7,650,282 

20,000 

Yunnan    .  . 

..     12,324,574 

1,000,000 

Hupeh      .  . 

.  .     35,280,685 

10,000 

Kiangsi     .  . 

..     26,532,125 

2,500 

Anhwei     .  . 

.  .     23,670,314 

40,000 

Chekiang  .  . 

..     11,580,692 

7,500 

Hunan 

..     22,169,673 

20,000 

Kwangtung 

..     31,865,251 

25,000 

Kwangsi  .  . 

.  .       5>I42,33° 

20,000 

MOSLEM  WORLD 


69 


Country. 

Total 
Population. 

Moslem 
Population. 

Authority. 

Fukien      

22,876,540 

1,000 

Manchuria 

16,000,000 

200,000 

Mongolia 

2,6OO,OOO 

100,000 

Sinkiang  (Chinese  Turk- 

estan, etc.) 

T  2OO,OOO 

I,OOO,OOO 

Total            

127,135,305 

8,42I,OOO 

Broomhall, 

p.  215. 

Tibet        

6  500,000 

28,5OO 

Broomhall 

(est.) 

Japan  and  Formosa 

55,644,358 

200 

Est. 

Persia       

5,000,000 

4,500  ooo 

Miss.  est. 

Siam 

3OO,OOO 

Est. 

Total  for  Asia 

156,690,110 

EUROPE 

Austria-Hungary,  includ- 

ing Bosnia  and  Herze- 

govina 

51,140,560 

613,587 

Kampffmeyer. 

Bulgaria 

4.337,516 

603,867 

,, 

Crete         

342,151 

27,852 

S.Y.B. 

Greece 

2,666,000 

24,OOO 

Kampffmeyer. 

Great  Britain 

45.369,090 

TP 

1,000 

R.M.M.      iii. 

132. 

Islands  of  the  Aegean    .  . 

296,800 

27,000 

S.Y.B. 

France 

39,601,509 

2,600 

Hartmann. 

Montenegro 

250,000 

14,000 

S.Y.B. 

Rumania 

7,248,061 

43,47° 

S.Y.B. 

Russia  (statistics  included 

under  Asia). 

Servia 

2,911,701 

14,300 

Kampffmeyer. 

Turkey 

2,000,000 

1,000,000 

S.Y.B.  (est.) 

The  rest  of  Europe 

•• 

2,000 

Hartmann. 

Total  for  Europe    . .  .  2,373,676 

AMERICA 
North  America     ..         ..  ..  8,000     Jansen  (est.). 

Total 


Argentine 


8,000 
South  and  Central  America 

7,171,910  7»52°     R.M.M.      vi. 

314- 


70    CENSUS  OF  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD 


Country. 


Brazil 


Cuba 

Guiana,  British 
Guiana,  Dutch 
Guiana,  French 
Jamaica   . . 
Mexico 
Trinidad  . . 
Scattered . . 

Total 


Total 
Population. 

Moslem 
Population. 

Authority. 

23,070,969 

IOO,6OO 

R.M.M.  vi. 

3i4- 

2,220,278 

2,5OO 

,,       ,, 

296,000 

2I,3OO 

».       », 

86,233 

10,584 

S.Y.B. 

49,009 

1,570 

R.M.M.  „ 

831,383 

3.OOO 

a       a 

15,063,207 

1,050 

a       a 

340,000 

10,499 

•i       a 

•• 

7.438 

„       ,i 

AUSTRALIA 


Total  Moslem  population 
Total  for  the  whole  world 


166,061 


19,500    R.M.M.  ii. 
394- 


201,296,696 


AUTHORITIES  QUOTED 

Total  populations  as  given  by  the  Statesman's   Year  Book,  1913 

(S.Y.B.),  unless  otherwise  stated. 
R.M.M. — Revue  du  Monde  Musulman.     Paris. 
Official  Stat. — Jaarcijfers  voor  de  Kolonien.     The  Hague,  1912. 
Enc.  of  Islam. — Encyclopedia  of  Islam. 
M.W.— The  Moslem  World. 
C.C.  Report. — Cairo  Conference  Report,  "  The  Mohammedan  World 

of  To-day." 

Broomhall. — Islam  in  China,  by  Marshall  Broomhall.     London. 
Kampffmeyer. — Die  Welt  des  I  slams,  vol.  i.  p.  i. 
Hartmann. — Der  Islam,  by  Martin  Hartmann.     Leipzig,  1909. 
Est. — Estimated  from  correspondence. 


CHAPTER   IV 

ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 


71 


CHAPTER   IV 

ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 

RUSSIA  is  the  greatest  compact  empire  in  the 
world.  In  area  it  is  larger  than  all  North  America, 
or  than  the  combined  areas  of  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Mexico,  and  Central  America.  A  total 
area  of  eight  and  a  half  million  square  miles  is  under 
the  rule  of  the  Czar.  Within  the  boundaries  of 
greater  Russia  two-fifths  of  all  the  territory  of 
Europe  and  Asia  are  embraced.  Indeed,  we  are  told 
by  Gilbert  H.  Grosvenor,  that  Russia  lacks  but 
ten  degrees  of  reaching  half-way  around  the  earth, 
and  possesses  one-sixth  of  the  land  area  of  the 
globe. 

For  more  than  a  century  the  Russian  dream  has 
been  a  great  Slav  empire,  extending  from  Germany 
to  the  Pacific  and  from  the  Arctic  Sea  to  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  present  war  is  undoubtedly  a  part  of  the 
fulfilment  of  this  dream  of  empire  ;  and  it  is  remark- 
able that  Russia  alone  of  the  great  Christian  Powers 
has  not  once  been  the  ally  of  the  Turk.  The  hatred 
of  the  Slav  for  the  Tatar,  whose  yoke  was  thrown  off 
in  1478,  when  Ivan  stamped  and  spat  upon  the 
edict  which  came  from  the  Khan,  has  never  ceased. 
For  this  reason  Russia  has  sacrificed  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  lives  in  war  against  the  Turks,  to 
help  Greece  to  secure  freedom,  or  to  deliver  Servia, 
Roumania,  and  Bulgaria.  Nevertheless  in  the  ex- 

73 


74  ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 

pansion  of  her  territory  Russia  has  absorbed  large 
areas  of  Moslem  population  in  the  Caucasus,  Central 
Asia,  and  Siberia,  and  the  highest  tribute  to  her  rule 
over  her  Moslem  population  has  been  their  loyalty 
during  the  present  war. 

It  is  of  special  interest,  therefore,  to  consider 
Islam  in  the  Russian  Empire.  The  coming  of  the 
Slav  is  no  longer  a  prophecy,  but  history,  and  we 
cannot  understand  the  Moslem  problem  in  Asia  unless 
we  reckon  with  Young  Russia,  the  land  of  unlimited 
possibilities.  As  the  Russian  novelist  Dostoievski 
expressed  it,  "  Russia  has  the  genius  of  all  nations  and 
Russian  genius  in  addition.  We  can  understand 
all  nations,  but  no  other  nation  can  understand 
us."  When  did  Islam  enter  Russia  ?  What  is  its 
present  extent  and  power  ?  What  are  its  strategic 
centres,  and  are  the  Moslems  of  Russia  accessible  ? 
These  are  some  of  the  questions  that  await  an 
answer. 

As  early  as  672  A.D.  the  Saracens  attacked  Bok- 
hara. The  conquest  was  not  an  easy  one  and  the 
invaders  were  repulsed.  In  704  Kuteiba,  the  Arab 
conqueror,  appeared  on  the  scene,  and  is  said  to 
have  advanced  as  far  as  the  extreme  border  of 
Eastern  Turkestan,  imposing  Islam  as  he  went.  We 
read  that  Bokhara  was  conquered  and  "  converted  " 
three  times,  only  to  revolt  and  relapse  until  the 
strongest  measures  were  taken  to  establish  the  new 
religion.  Every  Bokharist,  Vambery  tells  us,  had 
to  share  his  dwelling  with  a  Moslem  Arab,  and  those 
who  prayed  and  fasted,  like  good  Moslems,  were 
rewarded  with  money.  Finally  the  city  was  wholly 
given  over  to  the  Arabs,  and  a  little  later  Samarkand 
experienced  the  same  fate.  From  Bokhara  as  a 
centre,  Islam,  spread  gradually  by  coercion  or  per- 


ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA  75 

suasion,  by  preaching  or  by  the  sword,  in  all  direc- 
tions throughout  Afghanistan,  Turkestan,  and 
Chinese  Tartary  for  a  period  of  two  hundred  years. 
When  Marco  Polo  crossed  these  countries  (1271— 
1294)  he  found  Islam  nearly  everywhere  dominant. 
But  as  late  as  the  fifteenth  century  an  Arab  of 
Damascus  was  a  preacher  of  Islam  to  the  pagan 
tribes  of  Tunganis  who  lived  between  Ilia  and 
Khamil.  Sometimes,  also,  Islam  was  spread  by  the 
influence  or  example  of  kings  and  princes  who  be- 
came Moslems  and  set  the  fashion  for  their  court  and 
their  subjects.  So  Togoudar  Ogoul,  when  he  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Turkestan,  renounced  Chris- 
tianity and  became  a  Moslem,  his  subjects  following 
his  example.  We  must  distinguish,  however,  be- 
tween the  Russian  dominions  in  Central  Asia  which 
are  Moslem  and  her  ancient  European  Moslem  pro- 
vinces which  have  formed  part  of  the  Russian  Empire 
for  a  hundred  years  and  more. 

The  adding  of  Moslem  populations  began  under 
Ivan  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when 
Kazan  was  taken  and  East  Siberia  subjugated.  In 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Crimea,  then 
wholly  Mohammedan,  was  added  to  Russia.  The  Finns 
of  the  Volga  were  also  among  the  converts  whom  the 
Tatars  won  over  to  Islam,  According  to  Arnold, 
one  of  the  most  curious  incidents  in  the  missionary 
history  of  Islam  was  the  conversion  of  the  Kirghiz 
of  Central  Asia  by  Tatars  sent  as  emissaries  of  the 
Russian  Government  in  the  eighteenth  century.  At 
the  time  of  the  annexation  of  their  country  few  of 
them  had  any  knowledge  of  Islam,  and  not  a  single 
mosque  was  to  be  found  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  Kirghiz  steppes.  They  owed  their  conversion 
to  the  strange  theory  that  the  Russians  considered 


76  ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 

them  Moslems,  and  therefore  insisted  on  treating 
them  as  such.  Large  sums  of  money  were  given 
for  the  building  of  mosques  and  schools  opened  for 
their  children.  "  This,"  says  Arnold,  "  is  probably 
the  only  instance  of  a  Christian  government  co- 
operating in  the  promulgation  of  Islam,  and  is  the 
more  remarkable  inasmuch  as  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment of  that  period  was  attempting  to  force  Chris- 
tianity on  its  Muslim  subjects  in  Europe." 

For  information  regarding  the  present  spread  of 
Islam  in  Russia  and  the  numbers  and  distribution 
of  its  Moslem  population,  we  are  indebted  to  the 
late  Mme  Bobrovnikoff,  of  Petrograd  (St.  Peters- 
burg) (Moslem  World,  vol.  i.  No.  1),  and  Miss 
Jenny  von  Mayer,  who  has  done  considerable  mis- 
sionary work  among  Russian  Moslems  in  Central 
Asia. 

Russia  and  her  Moslem  colonies  are  not  separated 
from  each  other  as  is  the  case  with  the  Netherlands 
or  Great  Britain,  but  form  one  geographical  whole. 
No  sea  divides  the  Moslem  from  the  Christian 
part  of  the  Empire.  Trains  go  directly  from  Petro- 
grad through  Moscow  down  to  the  Moslem  pro- 
vinces of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia  to  Kashgar, 
Samarkand,  Bokhara,  Merv,  Askhabad,  and  the 
Caspian  Sea.  As  Miss  Von  Mayer  remarks  :  "  For 
facility  of  access,  both  in  administration,  civilization, 
and  Christianizing,  no  other  Power  can  compare 
with  Russia.  About  twenty  million  Moslem  subjects 
are  under  her  rule,  and  enter  more  or  less  into  her 
political,  social,  and  commercial  life." 

According  to  races  the  Mohammedans  of  Russia 
may  be  classified  as  follows  : 

Kirghiz 4,886,946  Mohammedans. 

Tatars 3,737,627 


ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA  77 

Aboriginal  Tribes  of  Central  Asia  : 

Usbeks  726,534 

Sartes  968,655 

Turkmans         281,357 

1,976,546  Mohammedans. 

Bashkirs 1,439,136  „ 

Georgians,  etc 1,336,448  Greek  Orthodox. 

Of  Armenian  birth          . .  1,173,096  Christians. 

Mordva 1,023,841  Baptized. 

The  rest  consist  of  smaller  units,  Finns,  Kurds, 
Jakuts,  etc. 

Moslems  are  found  scattered  in  nearly  every  part 
of  Russia.  In  the  following  provinces,  however, 
they  form  over  50  per  cent,  of  the  population  :  Ufa, 
Kars,  Tersk,  Elisavetpol,  Uralsk,  Daghestan,  and 
Baku.  All  these  are  in  European  Russia.  In 
Asiatic  Russia  the  percentage  rises  much  higher. 
The  province  of  Akmolinsk  has  64  per  cent.  Moslems, 
while  the  seven  other  Trans-Caspian  provinces  each 
contain  over  88  per  cent.  Mohammedans.  In  the 
European  provinces  the  principal  centres  of  Moslem 
civilisation  are  Kazan,  Orenburg,  Ufa,  Troizk.  Here 
most  of  them  use  the  Russian  language,  and  they 
are  among  the  most  civilised  Moslems  not  only  of 
Russia  but  of  the  world.  The  principal  centres  of 
Moslem  education  in  Asiatic  Russia  are  Samarkand, 
Khokand,  Tashkent,  Andijan,  Bokhara,  while  in 
the  Caucasus,  Baku  is  the  centre  not  only  of  com- 
merce but  of  Moslem  learning.  The  great  majority 
of  Russian  Moslems  belong  to  the  Sunnite  sect ; 
the  only  exception  is  in  the  Caucasus,  where  there 
are  a  considerable  number  of  Shiahs. 

Some  of  the  scattered  Moslem  communities  in  the 
other  Russian  provinces  are  of  considerable  import- 
ance. Tiflis  is  a  great  Moslem  centre,  and  a  mosque 


78  ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 

has  recently  been  built  in  Petrograd.  The  Russian 
occupation  of  Northern  Persia  was  followed,  even 
before  the  present  war,  by  a  veritable  exodus  from 
Turkestan  into  the  northern  provinces  of  Persia. 
Russia  is  already  dominant  politically,  and  a  veiled 
protectorate  practically  exists.  We  may  well  expect 
that  one  of  the  results  of  the  present  war  will  be 
the  handing  over  of  the  Armenian  provinces  of 
Turkey  to  Russian  administration.  The  result  will 
be  a  vast  increase  of  Russia's  national  responsibility 
as  regards  the  Moslem  problem.  The  present  number 
of  Moslems  in  European  Russia  is  3,500,000  ;  the 
remainder  are  in  Russian  Turkestan  and  Bokhara. 
It  will  not  be  surprising  if  the  total  number  of 
Moslems  under  the  Russian  flag  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  European  conflict  amounts  to  25,000,000. 

According  to  those  who  have  studied  the  situation, 
Russia  has  nothing  to  fear  from  Pan-Islamism  in 
the  form  of  Pan-Turkism.  At  one  time  there  were 
great  efforts  made  from  Constantinople  to  fan  the 
flames  of  fanaticism ;  "  but  it  seems  likely,"  says 
Miss  Von  Mayer,  "  that  reasonable  liberty  being 
accorded  them  for  their  own  national  and  religious 
life,  the  clever,  practical,  matter-of-fact  Tatars,  for 
all  their  undeniable  religious  fanaticism,  though 
lacking  the  deep  soul -fire  of  the  Iranic  race,  will 
prefer  to  be  assimilated  into  the  Russian  Empire, 
with  whose  traditions  and  interests  of  all  kinds  they 
are  united,  rather  than  with  a  problematic  pan- 
Turkish  Empire."  The  Russian  policy,  therefore, 
seems  to  be  to  gradually  assimilate  those  nationalities 
incorporated  into  the  Empire  by  schools  and  other 
methods  of  civilisation.  This  is,  however,  not  the 
case  with  Central  Asia.  Here  Russia  must  expect 
disturbances  and  annoyance.  The  Moslems  are  here 


ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA  79 

in  the  vast  majority,  and  are  subject  to  influence 
both  from  Afghanistan  and,  because  of  the  pilgrim- 
age, from  Mecca  and  Arabia.  To  quote  once  more 
from  Miss  Von  Mayer,  who  has  travelled  more  in 
this  region  than  any  other  Christian  worker : 

"  The  Moslems  of  Central  Asia  are  at  heart  not 
friendly  disposed  towards  Russia,  and  this  last  year  even 
less  so  than  before.  They  do  not,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  see 
much  of  the  blessings  conferred  on  their  land  by  a  govern- 
ment which  is  conspicuous  for  its  lack  of  initiative  and 
talent  for  organization.  Take  only  the  question  of  life 
and  death  for  Central  Asia,  the  question  of  water  supply 
by  irrigation  !  And  they  do  see  much  of  Russian  coarse- 
ness and  licentiousness  ;  no  reason  for  love,  certainly." 

In  regard  to  the  social  condition  of  the  Moslems 
in  Russia  we  must  again  distinguish  between  those 
in  Europe  and  in  Asia.  Literacy  is  as  common  in 
the  former  as  illiteracy  among  the  latter.  Accurate 
data  concerning  illiteracy,  however,  are  completely 
wanting.  The  new  Islamic  movement  began  in 
Russia  under  a  Tatar  of  Greek  extraction  named 
Gasprinsky,  who  founded  a  newspaper,  the  Terjuman. 
It  was  at  once  Pan-Islamic  in  tendency  and  strong 
in  its  advocacy  of  reform.  Attempts  were  made 
to  create  a  new  Islamic  language,  Pan-Tjoork,  which 
would  be  understood  by  all  the  different  Moslem 
tribes  living  in  the  Russian  Empire,  and  is  a  mixture 
of  Tatar,  Turkish,  Arabic,  and  Persian.  The  new 
Islamic  books  and  papers  are  written  in  this  language, 
and  a  literature  is  gradually  arising  covering  a  wide 
field, — from  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  to  Dozy's  Essay  on 
the  History  of  Islam.  The  principal  centres  of  this 
literary  movement  are  Kazan  and  Ufa.  The  former 
place  has  the  largest  schools  and  presses  ;  the  latter  is 


80  ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 

the  headquarters  of  the  Mohammedan  ecclesiastical 
assembly. 

The  strength  of  Islam  to-day,  and  its  power  of 
propagandism,  is  mostly  through  the  press.  A  recent 
number  of  La  Revue  du  Monde  Musulman  (Mar. 
1914)  gives  statistics  of  Russia  as  a  literary  centre 
for  Mohammedans.  During  the  year  1912,  631  new 
publications  appeared  from  the  Moslem  press.  Of 
these  no  less  than  249  were  published  at  Kazan  ; 
64  at  Orenburg  ;  and  these  two  places  are  the  chief 
centres  of  literary  effort,  although  we  must  not 
forget  Baku  and  Tiflis.  According  to  the  statistics 
given,  the  largest  number  of  books  were  in  Arabic  ; 
the  next  largest  in  Sart ;  178  were  religious  publica- 
tions ;  95  classical  publications ;  35  poetry ;  80 
general  literature ;  24  books  for  children ;  24 
theatrical  publications ;  13  on  geography ;  and 
10  on  social  questions.  Only  three  of  the  books 
printed  were  suppressed  by  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment. 

From  the  list  of  Moslem  presses  given  by  Louis 
Bouvat  in  La  Revue  du  Monde  Musulman  we  learn 
that  there  are  three  at  Petrograd,  three  at  Kazan, 
two  at  Tiflis,  one  at  Baku,  and  one  at  Baghtche- 
Serai.  They  publish  fifteen  journals,  many  of  which 
have  a  large  circulation.  The  influence  of  these 
journals  extends  over  all  Central  Asia,  and,  in  a 
sense  far  beyond,  into  Egypt  and  India- 
It  was  Ismail  Bey  Gasprinsky,  the  editor  mentioned, 
who  made  the  first  proposal  for  a  universal  Moslem 
Congress  in  1906  ;  and  although  the  Congress  was 
not  as  important  or  as  effective  as  had  been  hoped, 
the  fact  that  it  was  held  under  the  leadership  of  a 
Russian  Mohammedan  is  significant.  Gasprinsky 
also  made  an  extended  visit  to  India,  advocating 


MECCAN  PILGRIMS  ENCAMPED  AT  ARAFAT 

Nearly  200,000  pilgrims  go  to  Mecca  each  year. 


m 

V 


A  MOSLEM  FAMILY  IN  THE  CAUCASUS 

There  are  over  20,000,000  Moslems  in  the  Russian  Empire. 


ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA  81 

education  for  Moslems  on  modern  lines  and  Pan- 
Islamism  through  reform.  A  special  edition  of  the 
Koran,  what  might  be  called  a  critical  text,  has 
also  been  published  by  Gasprinsky  at  Baghtche- 
Serai,  and  finds  a  ready  sale  in  Cairo.  Some  of  the 
copies  contain  on  the  title-page  words  strange  to 
Moslem  readers  in  this  connection,  viz.,  "  Copy- 
righted." I  have  not  been  able  to  learn  whether 
this  edition  of  the  Koran  differs  in  any  important 
particulars  from  those  printed  in  Cairo  and  Con- 
stantinople. 

Leaders  of  religious  thought  in  Russia  are  awaken- 
ing to  the  importance  of  the  Moslem  problem ;  and 
well  they  may.  One  often  hears  of  the  Russian 
Jews,  and  yet  they  number  only  3*55  per  cent,  of 
the  total  population,  while  the  Moslems  form  nearly 
12  per  cent,  and  are  growing  in  influence  and  power 
in  the  Duma. 

In  1912  the  Imperial  Society  of  Oriental  Know- 
ledge established  the  Mir  Islama,  a  quarterly 
review  of  the  Moslem  world  for  Russian  readers, 
under  the  editorship  of  Professor  W.  Bartold, 
which  had  as  its  aim  "the  study  of  Moslem 
civilisation  as  a  complex  historical  phenomenon  not 
accounted  for  exclusively  by  the  influence  of  religious 
dogmas  and  precepts  ;  and  the  explanation  of  all 
those  civilising  (kuVturnwya)  influences  and  those 
political,  economic,  and  other  causes  by  which  the 
practical  life  of  Mohammedan  peoples  has  been  and 
is  determined." 

Next  to  the  press  the  dervish  orders  are  of  import- 
ance in  the  study  of  Russian  Mohammedanism. 
The  chief  orders  are  the  Kadhriya,  the  Shadiliyeh, 
and  the  Naqshabendi.  The  last  named  was  founded 
at  Bokhara,  and  still  finds  its  chief  centre  there. 
6 


82  ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 

The  Province  of  Bokhara  has  a  separate  system  of 
administration  and  government  under  an  Amir. 
The  latter  has  gained  enormously  in  prestige,  and 
Dr.  Bartold  tells  us  that  on  this  account  his  kingdom 
has  been  but  little  influenced  by  Russian  civilisation. 
The  population  is  still  exploited  in  the  most  ruthless 
fashion,  and  the  present  policy  of  the  government 
in  allowing  Moslem  rule  to  dominate  can  only  be 
disadvantageous  not  merely  to  the  subjects  of  the 
Amir,  but  to  Russian  prestige  in  Central  Asia.  Some 
think  that  the  great  secret  of  success  in  the  Russian 
administration  of  her  Moslem  population  has  been 
the  principle  of  non-interference  and  the  prohibition 
of  all  missionary  propaganda.  In  his  book,  The 
Duab  of  Turkestan,  W.  R.  Rickmers  says  : 

"  Leaving  aside  the  Christianity  of  the  Europeans 
and  a  few  mysterious  Pamir  sects,  the  whole  of  the  Duab 
is  under  the  sway  of  Islam.  The  nomads  profess  their 
religion  only  nominally,  but  the  settlers,  and  especially 
the  Bokharan  subjects,  may  be  counted  among  the 
most  fanatical  Moslems  in  the  world.  In  Bokhara,  how- 
ever, religious  fervour  is  the  work  of  a  few  leading  spirits, 
as  is  best  shown  by  the  condition  of  things  across  the 
Russian  border,  where  spiritual  tyranny  is  hardly  notice- 
able. Here  one  never  hears  of  quarrels  between  Christians 
and  Mussulmans,  the  population  being  exceedingly  tolerant 
on  both  sides.  The  Russian  administration  has  strictly 
forbidden  all  proselytising  even  on  the  part  of  the 
Orthodox  Church.  This  wisdom  has  excellent  results, 
contrasting  favourably  with  the  questionable  effect  of 
missionary  work  in  other  countries." 

This  opinion  is  not  shared,  however,  by  missionary 
workers,  who  state  that  Russification  is  very  far  from 
evangelisation  and  hinders  it  in  many  ways.  The 


ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA  83 

Orthodox  Church  in  Russia  has  lost  in  the  last  decade 
about  50,000  souls,  who  have  reverted  to  Islam. 

The  same  writer  who  speaks  of  the  toleration  of 
Moslems  toward  Christians  in  European  Russia  says 
in  regard  to  Bokhara  and  Samarkand,  that  Moham- 
medan fanaticism  here  finds  its  centre.  "  Haughty 
officials  pace  the  streets,  ascetic  mullahs  proclaim 
the  unadulterated  truth,  and  the  people  still  keep 
up  their  traditions,  manner,  and  dress  with  almost 
demonstrative  obstinacy." 

The  condition  of  Moslem  women  in  Russia,  except 
in  some  educated  centres,  is  still  deplorable.  In 
Bokhara  travellers  say  that  woman  is  conspicuous 
by  her  absence.  Architecture  and  domestic  arrange- 
ments are  influenced  by  the  traditional  seclusion  of 
womanhood.  When  seen  on  the  street  they  shrink 
at  the  sight  of  a  stranger  and  veil  themselves  closely 
in  all  haste.  Polygamy  and  divorce  may  not  be  as 
common  as  in  some  other  Moslem  lands,  but  general 
conditions  are  typical  of  Islam.  There  are  even 
darker  shadows  in  the  picture  than  one  would  imagine 
possible.  The  Frankfurtar  Zeitung  recently  gave  an 
account  of  the  sale  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  Moslem 
girls  in  the  province  of  Saratoff  to  Turkish  merchants, 
who  took  them  to  Tashkent  and  Samarkand.  The 
story  of  womanhood  in  Turkestan  finds  pitiful  ex- 
pression in  the  words  of  a  Christian  worker : 

"  When  the  heat  of  the  day  is  over,  the  inhabitant  of 
a  Mohammedan  town  goes  out  for  a  walk  to  enjoy  the 
evening  coolness  before  the  gates,  and  will  sometimes 
pass  the  burial-grounds.  Weeping  and  wailing  come  to 
his  ear.  Pitifully  he  will  look  at  the  figures  of  mourning 
women  who  are  kneeling  by  the  graves.  But  the  sorrow 
which  is  revealed  there  is  not  always  meant  for  the  loss 
of  some  beloved  one  dead ;  very  often  women  visit  the 


84  ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 

graves  of  their  relations,  or,  if  they  have  none,  of  saints, 
in  order  to  weep  out  undisturbed  and  unheard  their 
hopeless,  desolate  lives.  In  their  houses  they  dare  not 
give  way  to  their  sorrows  for  fear  of  their  husbands, 
therefore  they  go  to  the  dead  in  order  to  tell  them  their 
griefs  !  " 

On  the  other  hand,  Moslem  women  in  Russia  are 
awakening  to  their  new  opportunities,  and  we  read 
how  a  certain  number  of  the  educated  classes  sent  a 
petition  to  the  Duma  to  demand  popular  education 
for  girls.  A  Moslem  Congress,  attended  by  forty 
delegates  from  European  and  Asiatic  Russia,  was 
held  last  summer  at  Petrograd,  with  the  authorisa- 
tion of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior.  The  meetings 
reflected  a  strong  determination  among  the  Mos- 
lem subjects  of  Emperor  Nicholas  to  uphold  their 
religious,  social,  and  educational  rights.  The  estab- 
lishment in  Petrograd  of  a  centralised  authority 
to  look  after  the  interests  of  Mohammedans  through- 
out the  Russian  Empire  was  advocated  by  many 
speakers. 

"  The  Mohammedan  woman  in  the  light  of  to-day 
was  also  discussed,  and  her  cause  applauded  when  Akmud 
Kuramshin,  a  member  of  the  first  Duma,  declared  that 
without  the  education  of  women  it  would  be  impossible 
to  effect  progress  among  the  Mohammedans." 

"  If  certain  old  mullahs  continue  to  proclaim  from 
the  mosques  that  women  have  no  need  of  education," 
he  said,  "  they  simply  speak  from  ignorance." 
Akmud  went  so  far  as  to  say  every  woman  over 
twenty-one  years  of  age  should  have  a  vote  on  ques- 
tions affecting  the  community  at  large.  In  regard 
to  matrimony,  he  contended  that  both  parties  should 
be  asked  before  the  marriage  ceremony  whether 


ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA  85 

they  were  voluntarily  entering  into  the  contract. 
This,  he  said,  would  eventually  put  a  stop  to  the  idea 
that  Mohammedan  women  were  so  many  chattels. 

The  above-mentioned  petition  to  the  Duma  closes 
with  an  appeal  for  women's  rights  in  general,  especi- 
ally referring  to  the  oppression  of  Moslem  women 
by  their  own  husbands  on  account  of  the  mediaeval 
legislation  of  Islam,  and  ended  with  this  appeal : 

"  O  Moslem  deputies  !  duty  calls  upon  you  to  plead 
the  rights  of  Mohammedan  womanhood.  It  is  within 
your  province  to  demand  the  passage  of  a  law  which  will 
safeguard  us  from  the  oppression  of  our  husbands,  from 
their  tyranny  and  the  misery  which  they  inflict  upon  us. 
We  are  the  mothers  of  the  nation,  the  friends  of  man, 
and  it  is  upon  us  that  the  elevation  of  society  rests. 
Therefore,  if  our  husbands  are  not  willing  to  cease  this 
oppression,  let  them  be  aware  that  the  day  will  come 
when  they  will  be  slaves.  Then  the  entire  Moslem  race 
will  be  annihilated." 

For  some  years  a  reform  movement  has  also  gone 
on  among  the  Moslems  in  the  Caucasus,  with  Tiflis 
as  a  centre.  There  is  a  great  demand  for  education. 
One  weekly  newspaper  is  edited  by  a  Moslem  of 
liberal  views  and  is  striving  its  best  to  remove  old 
prejudices  and  old  traditions.  A  number  of  the 
Moslems  in  the  Caucasus  are  very  wealthy.  One 
of  them,  a  millionaire,  has  built  a  large  college  for 
the  education  of  Moslem  girls  in  Baku.  In  Tiflis 
a  diglot  edition  of  the  Koran,  Arabic  and  Turkish, 
has  lately  been  published,  and  seems  to  have  a  wide 
sale.  For  many  years  the  people  of  Tiflis  have 
been  longing  for  a  university,  and  probably  the 
Russian  Government  will  soon  grant  them  their 
desire.  Missionary  E.  John  Larson  states,  however, 
that  "  religious  liberty,  when  it  was  granted  to  this 


86  ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 

part  of  Russia  in  1905,  had  as  a  result  that  those 
Mohammedans  who  had  been  converted  by  force 
to  the  Christian  Church,  all  returned  to  Islam."  On 
the  other  hand,  he  speaks  of  more  than  thirty  Moslems 
who  experienced  a  change  of  heart  and  became 
connected  with  the  Evangelical  Church  voluntarily. 

Turning  now  to  the  question  of  missions  to  Moslems, 
v  as  we  have  already  stated,  no  Protestant  missionary 
effort  is  permitted  in  the  Russian  Empire.  But 
there  are  indications  that  after  the  war  a  new  law 
of  religious  liberty  may  be  possible  and  this  hindrance 
removed.  There  exists  a  Greek  Orthodox  Missionary 
Society  with  headquarters  at  Moscow ;  annual 
expenditure,  £32,422.  This  society  supports  several 
missions,  including  five  among  Moslems  at  Altai, 
Omsk,  Tobolsk,  a  mission  in  Asiatic  Russia,  and  the 
Orenburg  mission  in  European  Russia.  The  result 
of  this  work,  however,  is  very  small.  In  the  year 
1908  there  were  only  forty-four  converts  from  Islam 
to  the  Greek  Orthodox  faith  in  the  whole  Empire. 
Besides  this  mission  there  exist  in  Kazan  two  educa- 
tional institutions  to  prepare  missionary  workers, 
where  the  Tatar  and  Arabic  languages  are  taught, 
and  also  the  Moslem  faith  from  the  controversial 
side.  The  anti-Christian  propaganda  of  the  Moslems, 
however,  is  stronger  than  these  efforts.  According 
to  Mme  Bobrovnikoff,  the  only  satisfactory  result 
so  far  in  missionary  activity  among  Moslems  in  the 
Russian  Empire  has  been  the  work  of  Ilminsky  and 
his  followers. 

"Nicholas  Ivanowitch  Ilminsky  (born  1822)  was  a 
professor  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Academy  and  also  of  the 
University  of  Kazan.  He  was  a  distinguished  Orientalist, 
had  thoroughly  studied  Arabic,  Persian,  Turkish,  and 
several  other  Eastern  languages,  and  was  a  corresponding 


ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA  87 

member  of  the  Academy  of  Science  at  Philadelphia.  In 
the  year  1857  he  began  a  translation  of  sacred  books  into 
the  language  spoken  by  the  baptized  Tatars  ;  and  in  1863 
he  founded  in  Kazan  the  first  school  for  baptized  Tatar 
boys  and  girls." 

Ilminsky  died  in  1891,  but  his  work  was  taken 
up  by  others ;  and  from  his  central  schools,  put 
after  his  death  under  the  direction  of  M.  Bobrovnikoff, 
hundreds  of  religious  schoolmasters  and  school- 
mistresses went  out  as  whole-hearted  missionaries. 
A  Translation  Committee  was  founded  in  1876,  and 
parts  of  the  Scriptures,  stories,  school-books,  tracts, 
etc.,  were  prepared  for  Moslem  readers.  The  chief 
result  of  Ilminsky's  life-work  was  to  put  an  end 
to  the  conversion  of  numbers  of  aborigines  to  Islam. 
He  hoped  that  the  baptized  Tatars  would  act  as  a 
leaven  on  the  surrounding  Moslem  population,  and 
that  through  them  the  Christian  faith  would  gradu- 
ally win  ;  but  as  yet  there  are  no  signs  that  this  hope 
will  be  realised. 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  reaches 
many  of  the  Moslems  in  Russia  through  its  various 
agencies,  and  is  given  special  facilities  by  the  Russian  v 
Government,  both  as  regards  free  transportation  of 
Scriptures  and  railway  travel.  Their  agency  at 
Tiflis  has  been  a  centre  of  light  for  all  this  region. 
The  difficulties  met  with  are,  however,  very  great, 
especially  in  Moslem  districts.  Miss  Von  Mayer 
rightly  remarks : 

"  But  the  one  faithful  witness,  whose  zeal  never 
slackens,  whose  salt  does  not  lose  its  power,  which  cannot 
be  killed  or  silenced — the  Word  of  God  ! — is  on  the  field. 
The  Gospel,  translated  into  the  vernacular  of  all  or 
nearly  all  the  Moslem  tribes  of  European  and  Asiatic 
Russia,  is  within  the  reach  of  the  Moslems,  either  in  the 


88  ISLAM  IN  RUSSIA 

missionary  schools  (in  European  Russia)  or  offered  by  the 
colporteurs  of  the  Russian,  but  particularly  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Societies.  And,  thank  God,  the  number 
of  copies  sold  or  given  to  Moslems  shows  a  steady  increase. 
Whilst  this  agent  is  at  work,  the  Word  of  God  itself,  let 
us  not  despair  of  Moslems  in  Russia  finding  the  way  to 
Him  who  is  Truth  and  Life  !  " 

Meanwhile  we  can  only  wait  patiently  until  the 
door  of  access  is  opened,  strengthening  by  faithful 
prayer  the  hands  of  those  who  here  and  there  are 
sowing  the  seed  of  the  Word  among  these  millions. 


CHAPTER  V 

ISLAM  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA 


CHAPTER   V 

ISLAM  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA 

J.N  our  study  of  the  Moslem  problem,  it  will  not  do 
to  neglect  the  border  marches  in  Africa  and  Malaysia, 
where  Islam  is  winning  pagan  tribes  ;  nor  is  it  wise  to 
omit  such  isolated  groups  of  Moslems  as  are  found, 
for  example,  in  Trinidad  and  British  Guiana.  The 
number  of  Moslems  in  these  places  may  be  small,  but 
Islam  often  makes  headway  where  least  we  expect  it. 
A  letter  recently  received  from  the  Rev.  S.  Gara- 
bedian,  in  Cape  Town,  South  Africa,  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  spread  of  Islam  in  South  Africa  among 
white  as  well  as  the  coloured  races.  The  converts  are 
not  only  from  natives,  but  from  Europeans  and  half- 
castes.  The  writer  is  a  missionary  of  the  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  who  has  spent  ten 
years  in  North  India.  He  says  : 

"  I  can  assure  you  that  I  am  no  alarmist.  I  have 
seen  ten  years'  active  Mohammedan  service  in  and  near 
Delhi.  I  was  born  and  brought  up  in  Turkey,  lived 
seven  years  in  Jerusalem,  so  that  when  I  say  that 
Mohammedanism  is  playing  havoc  here,  it  is  no  ex- 
aggeration, and  something  must  be  done.  There  are 
whole  streets  which  once  were  Christian  but  are  now 
Mohammedan,  and  in  some  streets  every  other  house 
has  had  one  or  more  of  its  family  become  Mohammedans. 
Mixed  marriages  are  very  common  indeed.  Families 
and  relations  are  half  Christians  and  half  Mohammedans  ; 

81 


92         ISLAM  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA 

not   because  they   were   once   Mohammedans,   but  the 
reverse." 

The  facts  he  gives  are  sufficiently  startling  and  so 
well  corroborated  by  photographs  and  the  testimony 
of  other  workers,  that  they  should  awaken  prayer 
and  new  missionary  effort  for  Moslems  in  this  part  of 
the  world. 

The  total  Moslem  population  in  South  Africa, 
according  to  the  Colonial  Office  List,  London,  1913, 
is  as  follows  : 

Cape  Province 

Natal          

Transvaal 

Orange 

Basutoland 

Total  ..          ..    53,904 

This  total  is  not  large  in  proportion  to  the  whole 
population  of  more  than  eight  millions,  but  the  present 
activity  of  Moslem  propagandists,  both  Malays  and 
Indian  Mohammedans,  should  be  arrested  for  the 
sake  of  the  native  Church.  This  was  conclusively 
shown  by  Mr.  Gerdener  in  his  recent  book,  Studies  in 
the  Evangelization  of  South  Africa.  Speaking  of  the 
Moslem  peril  he  said  : 

"  Even  the  Southern  base  will  not  be  safe  against 
such  odds.  It  is  in  the  light  of  the  whole  African  problem 
of  the  challenge  of  Islam,  of  the  struggle  of  the  central 
tribes,  that  we  must  view  the  South  African  position. 
The  crisis  in  Africa  constitutes  this  emergency." 

What  are  the  facts  aj  regards  the  situation  to-day  ? 
For  years  there  has  been  a  movement  on  the  part  of 
the  Malays  and  of  Indian  Mohammedans  to  win  over 
the  white  and  coloured,  whether  Christians  or  Jews, 


ISLAM  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA         93 

in  South  Africa.  The  Malays,  we  are  told,  are  active 
in  this  work  for  two  reasons.  One  is  their  desire  of 
winning  merit  and  paradise  by  the  conversion  of 
Christians  to  Islam.  The  other  is  by  mixed  marriages 
to  make  their  race  whiter. 

The  Indian  Moslems  are  influenced  by  similar 
motives.  Although  many  of  them  have  their  own 
wives  and  children  in  India,  they  also  marry  white 
women  and  girls  by  Moslem  rite,  and  adopt  orphans 
or  neglected  children. 

Many  of  the  facts  communicated  to  me  by  my 
correspondents  cannot  be  published,  but  the  evidence 
given  is  incontrovertible.  We  are  told  that  there  are 
men  whose  sole  object  is  to  ruin  girls  and  win  them 
over.  "  For  this  end  they  put  on  English  caps  and 
assume  a  Christian  name.  Malay  women  are  always 
on  the  watch  to  get  any  child  by  any  means  they 
possibly  can."  It  seems  that  many  of  the  Christians 
are  so  ignorant  that  they  speak  of  the  mullah  as  a 
priest,  and  the  mosque  as  a  church,  and  the  Koran 
as  the  Bible.  To  quote  once  more  from  our  corre- 
spondent : 

4  There  are  some  Arab,  Egyptian,  Indian,  and  Turkish 
propagators  of  Mohammedanism,  who  are  very  actively 
engaged  in  spreading  their  faith  up  and  down  the  country 
by  Koranic  schools,  charms,  sorcery,  threats,  and  im- 
morality. Many  make  a  practice  of  taking  a  Christian 
wife,  and  after  he  has  made  sure  of  her  he  leaves  her 
and  takes  another,  and  yet  another.  The  law  in  this 
country  does  not  recognise  Mohammedan  marriage  as 
legal,  and  recognises  concubinage ;  but  to  the  Mohammedan 
it  is  proper  marriage  plus  conversion,  so  they  strive  to  have 
as  many  Christian  wives  as  they  possibly  can,  and  they 
cannot  be  punished  either  for  polygamy  or  for  desertion, 
as  the  marriage  is  not  considered  legal. 


94         ISLAM  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA 

"It  is  painful  beyond  description  to  see  everywhere 
white  and  coloured,  who  once  were  Christian  or  Jewish 
children,  now  adults  bearing  Mohammedan  names, 
wearing  the  Malay  head-dress,  often,  alas !  decorated  with 
charms ;  and  it  is  marvellous  to  see  what  a  difference  this 
has  brought  about — moral  deterioration,  aloofness,  hatred, 
antagonism  to  their  former  co-religionists  and  nationality." 

Moslem  schools  are  being  opened  everywhere  in 
South  Africa,  and  many  of  the  pupils  still  bear 
baptismal  names. 

The  children  are  taught  the  Koran  daily,  and  some 
of  the  schools  receive  Government  grants.  Among 
the  children,  we  are  told,  there  are  some  who  are 
pure  Dutch  and  English,  so  that  the  better  classes  are 
being  drawn  in,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  some  of  these 
marry  and  become  Moslems.  Thirty-seven  distinct 
instances  are  given  of  Europeans,  Dutch,  English,  and 
German,  who  have  been  won  over  to  Islam.  These 
instances  are  said  to  be  typical.  We  give  only  seven : 

"  Father  Scotch,  station-master,  died,  leaving  five 
children ;  daughter  barely  fifteen,  married  by  Malay  rite 
to  Indian  without  consent  of  objecting  parent ;  had  a  child 
before  she  was  sixteen,  which  died.  Doctor  attending 
said  she  had  no  business  to  have  a  child  at  her  age  and 
physical  development.  Rescued,  but  eighteen  months' 
best  treatment  and  care  barely  restored  her  to  health. 
There  is  much  that  cannot  be  written. 

"  Both  parents  English  ;  daughter  fifteen,  married  by 
Malay  rite  to  Indian  without  consent  of  parents  and  taken 
to  India,  shut  up  in  zenana  ;  writes  painfully  sad  letters 
to  parents  ;  father  and  mother  broken-hearted. 

"  Both  parents  pure  Dutch ;  daughter  married  by 
Malay  rite  to  Malay.  Story  cannot  be  related. 

"  Dutch,  said  to  be  orphan,  at  age  of  fifteen  married  to 
Malay ;  child  died,  husband  fined,  girl  left  him  and  went 


ISLAM  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA         95 

into  service.  Regularly  persecuted  by  Malay  husband, 
and  threatened. 

"  Father  Dutch,  mother  slightly  coloured ;  placed  on 
Robben  Island,  brought  away  by  Malay,  now  in  mere 
rags,  ill-treated  and  enslaved. 

"  Father  white,  mother  coloured ;  daughter  organist, 
married  to  Indian  by  Malay  rite  without  consent  of 
parents,  has  shop  next  door  to  a  chapel. 

"  Scotch  girl,  parents  dead,  one  sister  married  bank- 
manager,  brother  in  mounted  police,  sister  living  on 
private  means,  she  herself  married  to  Arab,  became 
Mohammedan  through  Malay  trick." 

A  number  of  mosques  have  been  built  in  various 
parts  of  South  Africa,  Natal,  Port  Elizabeth,  and  Cape 
Town  within  the  last  twenty  years.  There  are  no  less 
than  forty  mosques  in  Cape  Town  district  alone. 

The  result  of  these  intermarriages  can  only  lead  to 
the  degradation  of  the  white  race  socially  and  morally, 
not  to  speak  of  the  spiritual  atrophy  which  must  result. 
A  correspondent  writes  : 

"  We  see  a  white  woman  and  her  white  son  standing 
on  the  stoop  in  company  with  the  second  or  third  wife 
of  her  lord  and  master,  4  doekje  '  on  her  head,  in  a  long 
nightgown  dress,  and  wooden  shoes,  looking  dejected. 
We  talk  to  her — she  does  not  seem  to  understand,  and  has 
nothing  to  say.  How  should  she,  since  she  is  out  of  her 
proper  sphere,  and  wonderfully  depressed  !  We  step  into 
her  house ;  the  rooms  are  bare,  but  not  devoid  of  dirt,  no 
vase,  no  decoration,  no  picture,  except  that  of  the  Sultan 
and  that  of  Mecca.  At  last  we  have  found  the  secret. 
She  has  no  sympathy  with  her  white  people ;  the  white 
people's  nationality  is  no  longer  hers,  for  she  has  learned 
to  look  to  the  Sultan  as  her  king,  and  to  Mecca,  the 
uncivilised  Arabian  desert  town,  as  her  ideal." 

All  missionaries  seem  to  be  agreed  that  Islam  is  no 
stepping-stone  toward  Christianity  for  the  pagan  tribes 


96         ISLAM  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA 

of  Central  Africa  and  East  Coast,  but  exactly  the 
reverse.  If  Islam  is  no  blessing  for  pagan  races  in 
the  Dark  Continent,  how  much  less  can  we  afford  to 
see  it  absorb  native  Christians  in  South  Africa,  unless 
we  secure  a  new  base  for  the  conquest  of  the  whole 
Continent. 

One  who  knows  the  situation  thoroughly  writes  : 

"  No  one  can  deny  from  the  standpoint  of  both  Chris- 
tianity and  civilisation  that  for  the  white  and  coloured, 
lapsing  implies  degradation.  What  is  known  as  Malay 
marriage  is  in  reality  concubinage.  The  ideals  of  home 
so  dear  to  ourselves  become  utterly  impossible  under  such 
a  system,  where  a  woman  is  taken  and  discarded  at  the 
man's  whim  and  will. 

"  There  is  at  least  one  aspect  of  this  problem  which 
must  strike  home  to  all  of  us  who  live  in  South  Africa. 
The  coloured  people  are  chiefly  affected,  that  is  to  say, 
the  class  which  becomes  an  easy  prey  to  Mohammedanism 
is  that  from  which  for  the  most  part  we  obtain  the  women 
and  girls  who  have  the  care  of  our  children  at  their 
impressionable  age." 

A  Roman  Catholic  missionary  writes  as  follows 
concerning  the  methods  and  results  of  the  present 
activity : 

"  I  began  to  realise  how  easily  people  will  fall  into 
superstition  when,  as  in  this  country,  it  crouches  at  the 
door.  One  can  hardly  help  admiring  the  enterprise  of  the 
Malay  sorcerer,  who  defies  the  law,  relying,  with  good 
reason,  apparently,  on  the  shyness  of  his  victims  securing 
for  him  immunity.  A  walk  through  Cape  Town  will  con- 
vince one  with  any  knowledge  of  its  history  that,  as  a 
Devonshire  girl,  one  of  many  victims,  said  the  other  day, 
the  Malays  want  to  whiten  their  race.  One  sees  so  large 
a  proportion  of  European  eyes  and  faces  under  a  fez  or  a 
doekje.  The  roll,  too,  of  any  list  of  Malays  will  have  a 


ISLAM  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA         97 

large  proportion  of  European  names.  Among  the  so- 
called  4  churchwardens  '  of  a  mosque  at  Paarl  comes  the 
names,  Du  Toin,  Domingo,  De  Vos,  Groenwald — note 
both  Latin  and  Teutonic  elements." 

The  leading  men  of  the  Cape  Town  Mohammedans 
are  educated.  They  have  a  number  of  high  schools 
and  colleges  in  close  touch  with  the  Pan-Islamic 
movement  of  Cairo  and  Constantinople. 

The  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  from  South  Africa  is 
steadily  increasing,  especially  on  the  part  of  the 
coloured  population.  Socially,  the  Mohammedans 
are  getting  complete  control  of  certain  trades,  such 
as  that  of  tailor,  mason,  fruit  and  vegetable  sellers, 
and  carriage  drivers. 

The  only  hopeful  feature  about  the  situation  seems 
to  be  that  some  of  the  missionary  societies  are  be- 
ginning work  among  Mohammedans,  and  are  being 
roused  into  preventing  further  inroads  among  nominal 
Christians. 

Mr.  Garabedian  and  his  associate  write,  concern- 
ing their  work  at  Cape  Town  : 

"  For  the  time  being  the  greater  part  of  the  work  lies 
in  seeking  for  and  winning  back  those  Christians  who 
through  ignorance  and  sin  have  lapsed  from  the  Faith 
and  become  Mohammedans.  During  the  past  year  some, 
who  were  on  the  verge  of  lapsing,  have  by  timely  minis- 
trations of  exhortation  and  sympathy  found  strength  for 
recovery,  and  grace  to  begin  an  earnest  Christian  life. 

"  Much  work  has  been  done  of  a  really  valuable  and 
permanent  nature,  in  following  up  and  investigating  cases 
reported  to  us,  where  children,  both  white  and  coloured, 
had  been  given  over  to  Mohammedans  and  adopted  by 
them.  In  many  instances  it  has  been  found  possible  to 
restore  such  children  to  the  care  of  a  Christian  home." 


CHAPTER   VI 

WHY  ARABIA? 


44  IT  is  strange  how  seldom  our  attention  is  directed  to 
Arabia.  Here  is  a  region  of  Asia,  larger  than  India 
proper,  the  largest  peninsular  projection  indeed  of  any 
continent,  which  has  begotten  the  greatest  of  all  rivals 
to  our  creed,  and  lies  along  the  main  highway  of  our 
hemisphere  ;  but  hardly  once  a  year  does  an  event  within 
its  boundaries  receive  more  than  passing  mention  in  our 
journals.  Nevertheless,  changes  seem  to  be  taking  place 
behind  its  border  ranges  which  may  not  be  without 
importance  to  ourselves." — The  London  Times. 


100 


CHAPTER   VI 

WHY  ARABIA? 

THE  editor  of  the  Encyclopedia  of  Missions,  in  an 
article  on  the  unoccupied  fields  of  the  world,  raises 
the  question  whether  it  is  good  mission  strategy  to 
fight  against  great  obstacles  in  some  of  these  hard 
fields,  while  other  populous  lands  are  wide  open  and 
eager  for  the  Gospel.  "  Religious  fanaticism,"  he 
says,  "  is  a  problem  in  such  countries  as  Afghanistan, 
Baluchistan,  and  Arabia,  while  the  attitude  of  the 
state  religion  in  Siberia,  Indo-China,  and  Tibet  is  an 
obstacle  which  is  most  serious.  A  serious  question 
may  be  raised  here,  namely,  that  of  the  wisdom  of 
expending  force  in  overcoming  the  difficulties  con- 
nected with  all  these  lands,  except  possibly  Arabia, 
when  the  missionary  contingent  is  so  meagre  and  is 
needed  so  sorely  in  countries  where  there  is  perfect 
freedom  of  action  and  a  greater  number  without 
the  Gospel." 

The  italics  are  ours,  but  why  is  Arabia  excepted  ? 
Surely  because  of  its  strategic  importance,  which  is 
second  to  no  other  land  in  the  world  to-day.  The 
importance  of  Arabia  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  its 
area  and  poplation.  Its  strategy  is  sevenfold. 

I.  Geographically. — Arabia  lies  at  the  cross-roads  of 
the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  it  was  once  and  will 

soon   become   again  the   bridge   between   Asia   and 

101 


102  WHY  ARABIA  ? 

Europe,  the  causeway  between  Asia  and  Africa. 
The  importance  of  the  coming  Baghdad  Railway, 
which  will  bring  together  India  and  England  by  a 
direct  route  through  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the 
Euphrates  Valley,  cannot  be  over-estimated.  The 
Mecca  Railway,  with  a  branch  to  Jiddah,  will  greatly 
increase  the  pilgrim  traffic  and  develop  commerce 
in  the  Red  Sea.  Although  Arabia  has  a  population 
of  only  eight  millions,  it  has  an  area  of  nearly  a 
million  square  miles — four  times  the  size  of  France, 
and  larger  than  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River. 

II.  Politically. — A  writer  in  the  New  York  Journal 
of  Commerce  recently  said,  "  We  have,  from  time  to 
time,  endeavoured  to  make  it  plain  to  our  readers 
that  since  the  effective  arrest  of  Russian  ambitions 
in  Eastern  Asia,  the  international  centre  of  Asiatic 
politics  must  be  sought  in  the  Persian  Gulf."  Arabia 
is  the  fulcrum  of  future  politics  in  Asia. 

The  present  political  condition  in  Arabia  deeply 
interests  not  only  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  but 
France  and  Russia.  Turkish  rule  exists  in  only 
three  of  the  seven  provinces,  and  British  influence 
obtains  along  the  entire  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Persian  Gulf  has  practi- 
cally become  an  English  lake,  and  British  rule  has 
extended  far  inland  from  Aden,  while  her  influence 
is  supreme  in  the  province  of  Oman. 

"  A  foreign  power,"  said  Dr.  Rohrbach  in  the 
Spectator,  "  holding  the  harbour  of  Kuweit,  could 
close  or  open  the  entire  European  trade  with  India 
by  the  Baghdad  route  in  the  middle,  at  the  most  vital 
spot.  To  England,  as  soon  as  the  Baghdad  line  is 
running,  Kuweit  would  be,  if  not  wholly,  very  nearly 


WHY  ARABIA  ?  103 

as  important  a  position  as  the  entrance  to  the  Suez 
Canal.  If  we  do  nothing  to  stop  England  from 
holding  Kuweit,  we  virtually  renounce  in  the  future 
the  power  to  turn  to  our  account  the  immense  com- 
mercial and  political  consequences  of  the  Baghdad 
route  to  Southern  Asia." 

According  to  Dr.  Rohrbach,  if  Germany  is  to 
seize  the  trade  which  England  has  hitherto  mono- 
polised, now  is  the  time  to  act,  before  the  Russian 
engineers  have  brought  their  railway  to  Bandar 
Abbas,  whence  it  will  undoubtedly  be  extended 
along  the  Gulf  to  Bushire  and  Btisrah.  He  appeals 
to  Germans  to  remember  their  diplomatic  successes 
in  Siam  and  on  the  Yangtsze  and  take  their  courage 
in  their  two  hands.  To  shrink  back  now  from  an 
opportunity  so  favourable,  he  urges,  would  be  throw- 
ing away  a  winning  card,  and  he  concludes  with  the 
words,  in  emphatic  type :  "  Kuweit  must  remain 
Turkish." 

In  Yemen,  the  rule  of  the  new  Turkish  party  will 
result  in  an  open  door  for  the  Gospel  throughout  all 
that  populous  province.  Politics  and  missions  are 
closely  related  in  these  days  of  commercial  expansion, 
and  there  may  be  a  partition  of  Arabia,  as  there  was 
of  Africa,  or,  at  least,  the  opening  of  doors  closed 
for  centuries  will  follow  exploitation  and  political 
and  commercial  ambition  in  the  neglected  peninsula. 
We  must  unfurl  the  banner  of  the  Cross  now  in  every 
one  of  the  provinces. 

III.  Because  of  language. — Arabia  is  important 
because  of  the  Arabic  speech.  Some  time  ago  a  type- 
writer firm,  in  advertising  a  machine  with  Arabic 
characters,  stated  that  the  Arabic  alphabet  was  used 
by  more  people  than  any  other.  A  professor  of 


104  WHY  ARABIA  ? 

Semitic  languages  was  asked  :    "  How  big  a    lie  is 
that  ?  "     He  answered  :    "  It  is  true." 

According  to  this  authority  there  are  no  less  than 
five  hundred  million  people  who  have  adopted  the 
Arabic  alphabet,  while  the  Arabic  language  is  spoken 
by  at  least  forty-five  millions.  The  Arabic  language 
is  growing  in  influence  and  power,  and  is  one  of  the 
great  living  languages  of  the  world.  The  Arabic 
Koran  is  a  text -book  in  the  day  schools  of  Turkey, 
Afghanistan,  Java,  Sumatra,  New  Guinea,  and 
Southern  Russia.  Arabic  is  the  spoken  language  not 
only  of  Arabia  proper,  but  forces  the  linguistic 
boundary  of  that  peninsula  three  hundred  miles  north 
of  Baghdad  to  Diarbekr  and  Mardin,  and  is  used  all 
over  Syria  and  Palestine  and  the  whole  of  Northern 
Africa.  Even  at  Cape  Colony  and  in  the  West  Indies 
there  are  daily  readers  of  the  language  of  Mohammed. 

Arabic  literature  is  found  throughout  the  whole 
Mohammedan  world  ;  and  the  Arabic  language,  which 
was  the  vehicle  for  carrying  Islam,  will  yet  become 
the  great  vehicle  for  the  Gospel  in  Africa  and  Asia 
among  the  Mohammedans.  The  Arabs  themselves 
say  :  "  Wisdom  hath  alighted  upon  three  things — 
the  brain  of  the  Franks,  the  hands  of  the  Chinese, 
and  the  tongue  of  the  Arabs."  This  wonderful, 
flexible,  logical  speech,  with  its  enormous  vocabulary 
and  delicacy  of  expression,  can  only  be  won  for 
Christianity  when  Arabia  is  won  for  Christ. 

IV.  Because  of  the  Arabs. — Two  religions  contend 
for  the  mastery  of  the  world — Christianity  and  Islam  ; 
two  races  are  striving  for  the  possession  of  the  Dark 
Continent — the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Arab.  No  race 
has  shown  itself  so  strong  as  a  colonising  power  or  so 
intrepid  in  the  genius  of  exploration  as  has  the  Arab 


WHY  ARABIA  ?  105 

race.  The  Arabs  crossed  Africa  long  before  Living- 
stone, and  had  reached  Canton  in  China  in  sailing  ships 
twenty  years  after  the  death  of  Mohammed. 

Physically,  they  are  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
strongest  and  noblest  races  of  the  world.  Baron  de 
Larrey,  Surgeon-General  of  the  first  Napoleon,  said  : 

44  Their  physical  structure  is  in  all  respects  more 
perfect  than  that  of  Europeans ;  their  organs  of  sense 
exquisitely  acute,  their  size  above  the  average  of  men 
in  general,  their  figure  robust  and  elegant,  their  colour 
brown  ;  their  intelligence  proportionate  to  their  physical 
perfection,  and  without  doubt  superior,  other  things 
being  equal,  to  that  of  other  nations." 

Intellectually  they  have  a  glorious  history  and 
literature,  and  take  second  place  to  no  other  race, 
while  for  religious  enthusiasm  and  devotion  there  is 
no  people  that  can  compare  with  them.  If  this  race 
can  be  won  for  Christ,  they  will  do  for  Him  what  they 
once  did  for  Mohammed.  It  is  a  virile,  conquering 
race  and  not  a  dying  one. 

i4  It  surely  is  not  without  a  purpose,"  says  Edson 
L.  Clark,  44  that  this  widespread  and  powerful  race  has 
been  kept  these  four  thousand  years,  unsubdued  and 
undegenerate,  preserving  still  the  simplicity  and  vigour 
of  its  character.  It  is  certainly  capable  of  a  great 
future  ;  and  as  certainly  a  great  future  lies  before  it. 
It  may  be  among  the  last  peoples  of  South-eastern 
Asia  to  yield  to  the  transforming  influence  of  Christi- 
anity and  a  Christian  civilisation.  But  to  those 
influences  it  will  assuredly  yield  in  the  fulness  of  time." 
Is  that  time  now  ? 

V.  Because  of  Islam. — What  Jerusalemand  Palestine 
are  to  Christendom,  this,  and  vastly  more,  Mecca  and 


106  WHY  ARABIA  ? 

Arabia  are  to  the  Mohammedan  world.  Not  only  is 
this  land  the  cradle  of  their  religion  and  the  birthplace 
of  their  prophet,  the  shrine  towards  which  for  centuries 
prayers  and  pilgrimages  have  gravitated  ;  but  Arabia 
is  the  stronghold  of  Mohammedanism,  the  religious 
centre  of  this  world-wide  faith.  Every  year  thousands 
of  pilgrims  from  the  most  distant  Mohammedan  lands 
come  to  Mecca,  and  the  occupation  of  Arabia  by 
Christian  missions  is  a  challenge  not  only  to  the  Arabs, 
but  to  the  entire  Mohammedan  world.  In  1888 
Mackay  of  Uganda  made  a  strong  plea  for  missions  in 
Arabia  for  the  sake  of  Africa,  and  asked  that  "  Muscat, 
which  is,  in  more  senses  than  one,  the  key  to  Central 
Africa,  should  be  occupied  by  a  strong  mission.  It  is 
almost  needless  to  say  that  the  outlook  in  Africa  will 
be  considerably  brightened  by  the  establishment  of  a 
mission  to  the  Arabs  in  Muscat." 

Because  of  its  religious  importance  and  pilgrim 
centres,  Arabia  is  in  closest  touch  also  with  India, 
Malaysia,  and  Central  Asia.  The  influence  of  the 
Arabian  Mission,  since  it  was  established,  on  missions 
for  the  Mohammedan  world,  has  been  such  that  if  it 
could  point  to  no  other  results,  this  indirect  influence 
would  have  justified  its  inauguration  and  all  the  years 
of  service. 

VI.  Because  of  results. — Since  1889,  the  Arabian 
Mission  has  sent  out  twenty-nine  missionaries  to  the 
field — sixteen  men  and  thirteen  women.  During 
that  time  one  has  been  recalled  and  one  permanently 
invalided,  while  five  have  gone  to  their  reward,  leaving 
twenty-two  still  on  the  roll  of  the  Mission.  The  entire 
amount  of  money  spent  during  these  years  has  not 
been  over  $250,000  in  the  work,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  for  Arabia. 


WHY  ARABIA  ?  107 

The  east  coast  of  Arabia  has  been  definitely  occupied 
by  a  permanent  mission  plant  at  three  stations.  6  In 
all  Eastern  Arabia,"  says  Dr.  Cantine,  "  the  dense 
ignorance  regarding  true  Christianity  has  been  en- 
lightened, inborn  and  traditional  prejudices  have 
been  dispelled,  indifference  has  given  place  to  interest, 
and  the  aforetime  Kafir,  or  unbeliever,  has  become 
the  present-day  friend." 

The  Mission  can  point  to  a  total  circulation  of  over 
62,000  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  mostly  in  the  Arabic 
language  and  purchased  by  Moslems.  Medical 
missions  have  disarmed  prejudice  and  opened  the 
way  into  the  interior.  In  the  year  1908,  5784  copies 
of  the  Scriptures  were  sold,  and  the  medical  mission- 
aries reported  29,412  patients  treated. 

Nine  colporteurs  are  employed  by  the  Mission,  and 
in  one  year  they  travelled  3530  miles  in  visiting 
486  towns.  Regular  preaching  services  are  held  at 
all  of  our  stations,  attended  by  Moslems  as  well  as 
Christians ;  and  although  the  number  of  converts 
is  small  and  there  is  as  yet  no  Church  organization, 
there  are  those  who  are  enduring  reproach,  suffering 
shame  and  the  loss  of  property  and  liberty  for  the 
sake  of  Christ.  The  number  of  inquirers  is  increasing, 
and  the  seed  sown  is  beginning  to  bear  fruit. 

VII.  Because  of  unfulfilled  prophecy. — The  future 
is  as  bright  as  the  promises  of  God.  There  is  no 
land  in  the  world  and  no  people  (with  the  exception 
of  Palestine  and  the  Jews)  which  bears  such  close 
relation  to  the  Theocratic  covenants  and  Old  Testa- 
ment promises  as  Arabia  and  the  Arabs.  The  pro- 
mises for  the  final  victory  of  the  Kingdom  of  God 
in  Arabia  are  many,  definite,  and  glorious.  These 
promises  group  themselves  round  seven  names 


108  WHY  ARABIA  ? 

which  have  from  time  immemorial  been  identified 
with  the  peninsula  of  Arabia :  Ishmael,  Kedar, 
Nebaioth,  Sheba,  Seba,  Midian,  and  Ephah. 

The  sixtieth  chapter  of  Isaiah  is  the  gem  of  mission- 
ary prophecy  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  a  large 
portion  of  it  consists  of  special  promises  for 
Arabia : 

"  The  multitude  of  camels  shall  cover  thee,  the  drome- 
daries of  Midian  and  Ephah  ;  all  they  from  Sheba  (South 
Arabia  or  Yemen)  shall  come  :  they  shall  bring  gold  and 
incense ;  and  they  shall  show  forth  the  praises  of  the 
Lord.  All  the  flocks  of  Kedar  shall  be  gathered  together 
unto  thee,  the  rams  of  Nebaioth  shall  minister  unto  thee  : 
they  shall  come  up  with  acceptance  on  Mine  altar,  and 
I  will  glorify  the  house  of  My  glory." 

These  verses,  read  in  connection  with  the  grand 
array  of  promises  that  precede  them,  leave  no  room 
for  doubt  that  the  sons  of  Ishmael  have  a  large 
place  in  this  coming  glory  of  the  Lord  and  the  bright- 
ness of  His  rising.  It  has  only  been  delayed  by  our 
neglect  to  evangelise  Northern  Arabia.  And  then 
shall  be  fulfilled  that  other  promise  significantly  put 
in  Isa.  xlii.  for  this  part  of  the  peninsula :  "  Sing 
unto  the  Lord  a  new  song,  and  His  praise  from  the 
end  of  the  earth  ...  let  the  wilderness  and  the 
cities  thereof  lift  up  their  voice,  the  villages  that 
Kedar  doth  inhabit :  let  the  inhabitants  of  the  rock 
sing,  let  them  shout  from  the  top  of  the  mountains." 
It  is  all  there,  with  geographical  accuracy  and  up- 
to-date  ;  "  cities  in  the  wilderness,"  that  is  Nejd 
under  its  present  government ;  the  Kedarenes  for- 
saking the  nomad  tent  and  becoming  villagers ;  and 
the  rock-dwellers  of  Medain  Salih !  "  And  I  will 
bring  the  blind  by  a  way  they  knew  not ;  I  will 


WHY  ARABIA  ?  109 

lead  them  in  paths  that  they  have  not  known ;  I 
will  make  darkness  light  before  them  and  crooked 
things  straight."  The  only  proper  name,  the  only 
geographical  centre  of  the  entire  chapter,  is  KEDAB. 

These  unfulfilled  prophecies,  together  with  the 
command  of  Christ  and  the  presence  of  Arabians  at 
the  first  Pentecost,  should  inspire  us  to  pray  the 
more  :  "  O  that  Ishmael  might  live  before  Thee  !  " 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE  IN 
WESTERN  ASIA 


iii 


"  WE  are  confronted  with  an  opportunity  and  a  re- 
sponsibility never  before  faced  in  the  same  peculiar  form, 
and  in  the  same  degree,  by  any  missionary  society.  .  .  . 
These  opportunities  will  not  indefinitely  remain.  They 
are  ours  to-day." — JAMES  L.  BARTON. 

"It  is  increasingly  evident  that  at  present  there  is  a 
wide  open  door  for  aggressive  evangelistic  work  among 
Moslems  throughout  the  whole  of  Persia,  and  a  feeling 
of  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  whole  missionary 
body  in  Persia  for  the  speedy  evangelisation  of  the 
country." — Rev.  F.  M.  STEAD. 

"  If  the  Church  rouses  itself  to  evangelise  Arabia, 
Islam  is  doomed,  and  must  sooner  or  later  take  its  place 
among  the  religions  that  have  preceded  it  in  the  land  of 
the  Arab."— Rev.  J.  C.  YOUNG,  M.D. 


111 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE  IN 
WESTERN  ASIA 

MOHAMMED  was  a  true  prophet  at  least  once  in 
his  life.  He  taught  that  among  the  signs  of  the 
coming  end  of  the  world  and  of  the  fulfilment  of 
Islam's  desire  would  be  the  rising  of  the  sun  in  the 
West.  It  has  risen.  From  the  uttermost  Western 
confines  of  the  caliphate's  temporal  empire  marched 
the  Albanian  troops  carrying  upon  their  banners, 
"  Liberty,  equality,  fraternity,  a  constitution."  This 
was  the  first  proclamation  of  the  new  era,  and  the 
dawn  of  liberty  for  all  Western  Asia.  Those  who 
read  the  papers  and  pray  for  the  coming  of  God's 
Kingdom,  and  who  remember  that  only  a  few  years 
ago,  at  the  Cairo  Conference,  a  company  of  veteran 
missionaries — some  of  whom  had  been  fighting  the 
battle  for  fifty  years — knelt  in  prayer  before  a  map 
of  the  Moslem  world  and  prayed  God  to  give  liberty, 
are  still  rubbing  their  eyes  with  astonishment  at 
what  God  has  wrought.  More  surprising  and  sudden 
than  the  transformation  effected  by  Alladin's  lamp  in 
the  Arabian  Nights  have  been,  not  the  fictitious,  but 
the  real  and  stupendous  changes  which  God's  Spirit 
and  God's  providence  have  wrought  in  Western  Asia. 
Instead  of  universal  espionage,  freedom ;  instead 
of  despotism,  constitutions  and  parliaments  ;  instead 
of  a  press  that  was  gagged  and  throttled,  a  free 
8 


114       THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

press ;  instead  of  a  grinding  system  of  passports 
and  permits,  free  emigration  and  immigration  all  over 
Persia  and  Arabia  and  Turkey ;  instead  of  banish- 
ment, amnesty ;  and  instead  of  despotism  ruling 
in  the  capitals  against  the  rights  of  the  people  and 
crushing  them  down,  Abdul  Hamid,  the  tyrant,  de- 
posed, and  parliaments  sitting  in  Teheran  and  in 
Constantinople.  The  great  army  of  spies,  numbering 
forty  thousand,  and  said  to  cost  two  million  pounds  a 
year,  has  been  abolished  and  the  peoples  of  Turkey 
and  Persia,  blindfolded,  gagged,  and  manacled  for 
centuries,  are  almost  delirious  with  new-found  liberty. 
The  Damascus  Railway  has  reached  Medina,  and 
electric  lights  are  burning  over  the  Prophet's  tomb. 
What  hath  God  wrought  in  these  last  few  years 
throughout  the  vast  region  of  Western  Asia  ! 

Turkey,  Persia,  and  Arabia,  the  three  great  Moslem 
lands  of  the  Nearer  East,  have  experienced  greater 
industrial,  intellectual,  social,  and  religious  changes 
within  the  past  five  years  than  befell  them  previously 
in  the  last  five  centuries.  Nevertheless,  the  most 
sane  statesman  and  the  most  thoughtful  missionaries 
are  agreed  that  nothing  has  ended  in  Turkey  or  in 
Persia ;  but  something  has  begun  in  those  lands, 
which  every  eye  is  strained  to  understand. 

Western  Asia  no  less  than  Eastern  Asia  should 
rivet  our  attention  because  of  the  impending  struggle 
between  the  Cross  and  the  Crescent  for  supremacy, 
a  struggle  that  is  inseparable  from  the  awakening 
of  those  great  lands.  The  populations  there  are 
smaller,  the  areas  are  more  limited,  the  races  may 
not  have  the  same  mental  and  moral  calibre — though 
their  inferiority  is  not  proven ;  but  the  influence 
of  Western  Asia  has  always  been  world-wide,  and  if 
the  Moslem  peril  in  Africa  is  a  real  peril  and  a  real 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  115 

menace,  the  security  against  that  peril  and  the  cure 
for  that  menace  is  found  in  Western  Asia,  because 
Western  Asia  has  always  dominated  the  thought  of 
Africa. 

I  desire  to  call  attention  to  three  aspects  of  the 
impending  struggle  throughout  the  whole  of  Western 
Asia.  First,  to  the  greatest  battlefield,  and  to  the 
forces  which  already  are  prepared  for  the  work  of 
God.  In  the  second  place,  to  the  nature,  the  origin, 
the  character,  the  issues  of  the  struggle.  And, 
finally,  to  the  certainty  of  coming  victory. 

I.  What  is  the  battlefield  of  Western  Asia  ?  Its 
area  includes  no  less  than  2,600,000  square  miles, 
ten  times  the  area  of  all  France,  or  nearly  that  of 
the  whole  of  the  United  States  ;  and  in  it  there  is 
a  population  of  no  less  than  36,000,000  souls. 
Leaving  out  for  the  moment  all  that  part  of  Central 
Asia  which  by  its  ideals  and  ideas,  its  religion  and 
its  language,  belongs  to  Western  Asia,  the  great 
heart  of  Asia — Afghanistan,  Russian  Turkestan, 
Khiva,  Bokhara,  and  Chinese  Turkestan — we  have 
before  us  in  Persia,  Arabia,  and  the  Turkish  Empire, 
including  Syria  and  Palestine,  a  population  of  no 
less  than  36,000,000  people.  Of  these,  30,000,000 
in  round  numbers  are  Mohammedans.  I  am  leaving 
out  of  the  problem — although,  thanks  be  to  God, 
He  has  not  left  out  of  the  solution — the  6,000,000 
of  those  who,  in  spite  of  fire  and  sword  and  dungeon, 
have  remained  true  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers ;  I 
mean  the  members  of  the  Oriental  Churches.  But  for 
our  present  consideration  we  have  a  massed  popula- 
tion of  30,000,000  Mohammedans,  which  inhabits 
three  countries,  bearing  a  very  strategic  relation 
to  the  whole  Mohammedan  world.  Arabia  is  the 


116     THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

cradle  of  its  creed,  Persia  of  its  philosophy,  Turkey 
of  its  politics. 

Persia,,  in  a  real  sense,  has  for  many  centuries 
been  the  intellectual  and  religious  hub  of  all  Central 
AsTa.  She  wields  an  influence  in  the  Moslem  world 
to-day,  and  has  had  an  influence  for  over  a  thousand 
years,  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  number  of  her 
inhabitants  or  the  character  of  her  people.  I  refer 
to  the  influence  of  Persia  as  a  disintegrating  power 
in  the  Mohammedan  world.  Mother  of  Moslem 
heresies,  this  land  has  been  the  centre  and  source 
of  authority  for  all  Mohammedans  who  were  not 
of  the  orthodox  party.  The  Babiis  found  their 
leader  and  their  strength  in  Persia.  Every  move- 
ment against  orthodox  Mohammedanism  has  arisen 
in  that  wonderful  country  of  Aryan  blood  and 
thought  which  rebelled  against  the  bald  monotheism 
of  the  Semites  from  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  Here 
Aryan  thought  has  largely  modified  the  Semitic 
creed.  From  Persia  Mohammedan  mysticism,  poetry, 
and  philosophy  have  gone  out  on  the  wings  of 
literature  to  the  ends  of  the  world.  And  to-day, 
not  only  by  the  camp-fires  of  the  Sahara  desert  or 
in  the  mosques  of  India  and  Java,  but  even  in 
Oxford  and  Berlin,  you  find  students  of  Hafiz  and 
Omar  Khayyam  and  Jelal-ud-din. 

The  Turks  are  a  ruling  race.  They  have  often 
been  greatly  abused  in  the  public  press,  but  in  family 
life  and  as  specimens  of  strong,  manly  character, 
they  are,  as  every  missionary  to  Turkey  will  testify, 
high  in  the  scale  of  the  family  of  nations. 

In  natural  resources  Turkey  is  the  fairest  and 
richest  portion  of  the  Old  World.  Under  a  good 
government,  these  undeveloped  resources  would  make 
her  one  of  the  richest  countries  in  Asia.  Her  popula- 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  117 

tion  includes  a  great  variety  of  races  and  religions, 
each  able  to  contribute  something  of  real  worth  to 
the  assets  of  national  greatness.  The  Albanians, 
the  Armenians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Kurds  have 
vigour  of  manhood,  pride  of  race,  and  a  splendid 
history  of  leadership  in  the  past,  while  the 
Ottoman  Turks  are  all  of  them  born  rulers  and 
warriors. 

Turkey  has  for  four  hundred  years  held  the 
caliphate,  the  papacy  of  the  Moslem  world.  In 
the  hands  of  the  Caliph  are  the  old  mantle  of 
Mohammed,  signifying  his  prophetic  authority,  and 
the  sword  of  Mohammed,  signifying  his  political 
dominion  ;  and  every  part  of  the  Moslem  world, 
every  Friday  at  noon  prayer,  remembers  the  great 
political  capital  and  prays  Allah  to  bless  the  temporal 
ruler  of  the  Moslem  world. 

What  Jerusalem  and  Palestine  are  to  Christen- 
dom, this  and  vastly  more  Mecca  and  Arabia  are  to 
the  Mohammedans.  They  are  the  centre  towards 
which  for  centuries  prayers  and  pilgrimages  have 
gravitated.  How  the  largest  Student  Volunteer 
Convention  shrinks  in  comparative  size  when  you 
try  to  imagine  the  audience  that  collects,  not  in 
a  half  circle,  but  in  a  perfect  circle,  round  the 
Kaaba,  the  Beit  Allah  —  an  audience  of  70,000 
pilgrims. 

And  they  have  been  gathering  there  yearly  for 
thirteen  centuries,  without  attractive  music  or 
speakers,  crowding  from  every  part  of  the  Moslem 
world  to  the  heart  of  Islam  for  the  deepening  of  their 
spiritual  life.  That  typifies  the  strategic  importance 
of  Arabia. 

Arabia  also  lies  at  the  cross-roads  of  the  commerce 
of  three  continents.  It  is  the  causeway  into  Africa, 


118     THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

the  bridge  between  Europe  and  Asia.  And  to-day 
there  is  in  North  Arabia  a  struggle  to  make  that 
great  old  highway  of  history,  Mesopotamia,  the 
highway  of  the  modern  nations.  The  goal  of  the 
game  is  the  commerce  of  all  Asia.  The  pawns  are 
the  Arabs  and  the  Turks  ;  the  players,  the  German 
Emperor  and  the  King  of  England  ;  the  checker- 
board, the  great  Mesopotamian  Valley.  When  the 
Turkish  Sultan  gave  Germany  concessions  for  the 
Baghdad  Railway,  he  also  gave  the  right  to  control 
Turkish  soil  no  less  than  twelve  miles  on  each  side 
of  that  railway  for  1200  miles  across  the  whole  of 
North  Arabia.  And  although  Germany  was  check- 
mated when  Great  Britain  took  Kuweit,  she  is 
pushing  ahead  with  her  railway.  On  the  other  hand, 
Sir  William  Willcocks,  the  wizard  of  the  Nile,  has 
been  sent  by  the  Young  Turks  to  open  irrigation 
works  and  flood  three  million  desert  acres  with  new 
life  and  make  the  desert  to  blossom  like  the  rose. 

According  to  the  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce, 
and  on  the  authority  of  Captain  Mahan,  the  future 
international  centre  of  Asiatic  politics  must  be  sought 
in  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  present  political  condition, 
therefore,  of  Arabia  deeply  interests  not  only  Great 
Britain  and  Germany,  but  France  and  Russia. 
Turkish  rule  exists  in  only  three  of  the  seven 
provinces,  and  British  influence  obtains  along  the 
entire  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  Persian  Gulf  has  become  an  English 
lake,  and  British  rule  has  extended  far  inland  from 
Aden,  while  her  influence  is  supreme  in  the  province 
of  Oman.  Within  the  next  few  years  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  basin  is  destined  to  be  the  scene  of  the 
greatest  contest  for  commercial  supremacy  since 
the  partition  of  Africa. 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  119 

These  three  great  nations,  then,  form  the  arena  of 
the  conflict.  And  what  are  the  populations  ?  The 
Turkish  race,  the  Persian  race,  the  Arab  race,  three 
of  the  ruling  races  of  the  world.  The  Persians  are 
the  Frenchmen  of  the  East ;  the  Turks,  in  a  real 
sense  the  Germans  of  the  East,  with  the  same  military 
aspirations,  the  same  military  character  ;  and  the 
Arabs,  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  the  Orient.  Such  is  the 
arena,  and  these  are  the  ruling  races — not  to  speak 
of  other  strong  peoples,  the  Albanians,  the  Armenians, 
the  Kurds,  who  have  all  shown  magnificent  energies 
in  the  history  of  politics  and  religion. 

Asiatic  Turkey  already  has  a  total  of  two  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  miles  of  railway.  This,  with 
the  splendid  harbours  and  river  navigation,  makes 
the  greater  part  of  the  Empire  accessible.  And  in 
that  vast  area  what  are  the  forces  ?  Over  six 
hundred  Protestant  missionaries  are  now  at  work  in 
Persia,  Arabia,  and  Turkey,  and  mission  stations  are 
dotted  all  over  these  countries :  Constantinople, 
Salonica,  Adrianople,  Smyrna,  Baghdad,  Aleppo,  Beirut, 
Brussa,  Kaisariyah,  Mosul,  Mardin,  Adana,  Jerusalem. 
Why  do  I  give  the  names  ?  Every  name  is  eloquent 
with  the  sacrifice  of  life  and  love  and  tears,  and  no 
less  eloquent  with  potentialities  for  the  coming  con- 
flict— Trebizond,  Diarbekr,  Tabriz,  Teheran,  Ispahan, 
Kirman,  Yezd,  Shiraz,  Aden,  Muscat,  Bahrein,  and 
Busrah.  There  is  not  in  the  entire  territory  a  single 
city  of  all  those  given  in  the  Statesman's  Year  Book 
as  having  a  population  exceeding  twenty  thousand 
which  is  not  already  occupied,  save  Mecca,  Medina, 
and  Kerbela,  still  closed  by  the  hand  of  fanaticism 
because  they  are  sacred  cities.  This  is  the  finger  of 
God.  If  there  is  to  be  a  struggle  in  Western  Asia — 
and  who  will  deny  that  there  is  ? — that  struggle  has 


120     THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

been  already  decided  strategically  by  the  pre- 
occupation of  every  important  centre,  through  the 
hand  of  God's  providence,  by  Christian  missions. 
In  this  mighty  conflict  our  weapons  are  not  carnal ; 
the  only  weapon  we  have  is  love  ;  the  only  sword 
we  have  is  the  sword  of  God's  Word. 

In  all  five  of  these  Moslem  lands,  Turkey,  Palestine, 
Syria,  Persia,  Arabia,  our  missionaries  are  engaged  in 
educational,  medical,  and  evangelistic  work.  The 
Bible  has  been  translated  into  all  the  languages  of 
Western  Asia,  and  a  large  Christian  literature  pre- 
pared for  its  polyglot  people.  At  the  Beirut  press 
alone  sixty  million  pages  of  Christian  books  were 
printed  in  a  single  year,  and  in  one  month  orders  were 
on  file  for  a  hundred  thousand  copies  of  the  Arabic 
Scriptures,  including  eighteen  cases  of  Bibles  sent  to 
Shanghai  for  the  Moslems  of  China  !  What  stronger 
proof  can  be  given  of  the  strategic  importance  of 
Syria  in  the  evangelisation  of  the  Moslem  world  ? 
And  who  can  measure  the  influence  and  power  of 
such  great  educational  centres  as  Robert  College,  the 
Syrian  Protestant  College,  and  similar  institutions 
at  Marsovan,  Aintab,  Smyrna,  Tarsus,  Marash,  and 
Teheran  ?  Robert  College  has  for  the  past  thirty 
years  educated  and  trained  fifteen  nationalities  in  the 
principles  of  justice  and  self-government,  and  made 
possible  the  present  new  era  in  Turkey.  "  It  was 
you  Americans,"  said  a  Turk  to  President  Tracy  of 
Anatolia  College,  "  who,  coming  to  Turkey,  found  us 
in  darkness  and  showed  us  the  way  to  the  light." 
The  American  missionaries  were  the  pioneers  of 
modern  education  in  every  city  of  Western  Asia,  Two 
score  mission  hospitals  and  dispensaries  dot  the  map 
from  Constantinople  to  Aden,  and  from  Smyrna  to 
Kirman.  Medical  missionaries  have  not  only  dis- 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  121 

armed  suspicion  and  prejudice,  but  have  won  the 
lifelong  friendship  of  tens  of  thousands  of  the  people. 
One  hospital  in  Arabia  had  13,397  out-patients  last 
year  ! 

The  march  of  Western  civilisation  and  the  work  of 
missions  in  all  these  centres,  with  the  stirring  of  God's 
Spirit  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  so  long  under  bondage 
and  oppression,  have  precipitated  a  conflict  and  a 
struggle  which  is  inevitable  and  which  none  can  hold 
back. 

II.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  conflict  ?  The 
coming  struggle  will  be  not  solely  religious,  but  an 
educational,  industrial,  social,  and  political  upheaval 
in  which  religion  plays  a  chief  part.  The  Turks 
themselves  see  what  is  coming.  In  a  leading  editorial 
in  one  of  the  most  influential  Turkish  papers  appeared 
these  words  : 

14  The  Moslem  world  is  in  the  throes  of  regeneration 
which  will  affect  its  social  as  well  as  its  political  condition, 
and,  indirectly,  must  concern  its  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
It  will  undoubtedly  have  the  same  influence  that  the 
reformation  of  Luther  " — mark  the  words — "  and  the 
French  Revolution  had  upon  society  and  culture.  The 
dethronement  of  three  absolute  monarchs  in  three  in- 
dependent Mohammedan  states  is  a  novel  chapter  in  the 
history  of  our  religion  and  calls  for  grave  reflection,  fellow 
Moslems.  The  social  and  economical  affairs  of  a  nation, 
as  well  as  its  religious  affairs,  are  absolutely  allied  to  its 
politics,  and  there  cannot  be  a  serious  disturbance  in  the 
one  without  having  a  great  influence  on  the  other.  It 
means  either  a  decay  or  progress,  because  there  is  no 
such  thing" — wonderful  words  from  Turkey — "because 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  rest  or  stagnation  in  society." 

These  words,  coming  from  an  authoritative  source, 


122    THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

/  put  before  us  the  real  nature  of  the  struggle.  It  is 
/  fourfold :  between  two  political  parties,  between 
I  two  civilisations,  between  two  religions,  and  ultimately 
v  between  two  great  leaders. 

First  of  all — there  is  the  struggle  between  two 
political  parties,  the  party  of  progress  and  the  party 
of  conservatism,  the  party  of  the  Constitution  and  the 
party  of  the  Royalists,  the  paity  of  the  old  Koran  and 
the  party  of  the  new  regime.  By  whatever  names 
they  are  called,  it  is  simply  the  repetition  of  history 
— the  Liberals,  the  Radicals,  as  opposed  to  the  Con- 
servatives ;  those  who  would  change  the  order  of 
society,  and  those  who  would  hold  to  the  ancient 
order.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  revolutionary 
parties  both  in  Persia  and  Turkey  were  not  anti- 
Islamic  nor  Pan-Islamic,  neither  professedly  religious 
nor  irreligious  in  character :  they  were  the  voice  of 
the  people  crying  for  liberty,  the  expression  of  general 
social  discontent. 

For  many  years  the  better  class  of  Persians,  Turks, 
and  Arabs  had  freely  acknowledged  the  ignorance, 
injustice,  and  weakness  of  the  Moslem  world,  and  were 
groping  for  a  remedy.  The  fuel  was  ready  in  the 
educated  class  who  dared  to  think ;  the  spark  that 
kindled  the  flame  was  the  victory  of  Japan  over 
Russia,  which  had  its  influence  throughout  all  Asia 
and  proved  that  Asiatics  can  hold  their  own  against 
Europeans,  and  that  a  new  nationalism  is  the  only 
remedy  against  foreign  occupation  in  lands  like 
Persia  and  Turkey.  But  how  shall  the  new  national- 
ism-deal  with  the  old  religion  ?  Here  is  the  struggle. 

The  brief  history  of  constitutional  government  in 
Persia  has  already  proved  the  reality  of  the  conflict. 
The  Persian  Constitution  was  ready  for  adoption, 
when  the  leaders  were  compelled  to  preface  the  docu- 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  123 

merit  with  an  article  accepting  the  authority  of  the 
religious  law  of  Islam  as  final ;  not  only  the  law  of 
the  Koran,  but  the  traditional  law  of  Shiah  inter- 
pretation. "  One  might  as  well  bind  together  the 
American  Constitution  and  the  Talmud,"  says  Dr. 
Shedd,  "  and  make  the  latter  supreme  and  inviolable." 
And  Lord  Cromer  in  his  Modern  Egypt  states  that  it 
has  yet  to  be  proved  whether  Islam  can  assimilate 
civilisation  without  succumbing  in  the  process.  He 
adds  :  "  Reformed  Islam  is  Islam  no  longer." 

The  political  question  to-day  in  Persia  and  in 
'  Turkey  is  whether  the  old  Koran  or  the  new  Con- 
Vstitution  shall  have  the  right  of  way.  Although  the 
Sheikh-el -Islam  has  publicly  declared  that  "  The 
Turkish  Parliament  is  the  most  exact  application  of 
the  Koranic  law,  and  constitutional  government  is 
the  highest  possible  illustration  of  the  Caliphate," 
we  have  a  right  to  doubt  his  assertion — remembering 
the  thirteen  centuries  of  Moslem  intolerance  and 
despotism.  Those  who  read  the  Koran  in  Morocco, 
Eastern  Turkey,  and  Arabia  have  not  yet  discovered 
its  constitutional  principles,  and  the  reaction  against 
the  new  Sultan  and  the  new  parliament  is  already 
deep  and  widespread.  One  of  the  most  prominent 
dailies  in  Cairo  advocated  the  restoration  of  Abdul 
Hamid,  while  in  Yemen  a  new  Mahdi  has  appeared 
whose  followers  number  twenty-five  thousand.  He 
preaches  the  old  religion,  and  by  his  authority  liars 
are  punished  by  the  pulling  out  of  the  tongue,  and 
thieves  by  the  amputation  of  the  hand. 

The  conflict  between  the  Old  and  the  Young 
Turkish  party  is  not  only  inevitable,  but  is  irre- 
concilable. Both  parties  are  animated  by  the  same 
patriotism,  but  their  ideals  are  wholly  different  and 
contradictory.  For  the  Old  Turks  Islam  is  an  end ; 


124    THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

for  the  New  Turks  it  is  not  an  end,  but  only  a  means. 
The  New  Turks  are  hoping  to  put  the  new  wine  into 
the  old  bottles  by  carefully  diluting  it,  while  the  Old 
Turks  have  no  use  for  the  new  wine  at  all.  In  the 
present  Turkish  Parliament,  out  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty-six  members,  two  hundred  and  thirteen 
are  Moslems,  and  it  would  be  safe  to  say  that  the 
vast  majority  are  at  heart  opposed  to  any  change  in 
the  real  character  of  Islam,  and  will  fight  to  the  end 
to  make  it  the  only  religion  of  the  State. 

Islam  does  not  believe  in  a  State  Church,  as  Lord 
Curzon  has  pointed  out,  but  in  a  Church  State ;  and 
Lord  Cromer  has  shown  in  his  Modern  Egypt  that  the 
three  great  defects  of  Islam — the  position  of  woman- 
hood, its  unchanging  civil  law,  and  its  intolerant 
spirit — are  for  ever  incompatible  with  real  progress. 
When  a  man  so  well  informed  as  Lord  Cromer  says 
it  is  impossible,  we  must  not  be  too  ready  to  believe 
that  the  promulgation  of  a  paper  Constitution  is 
enough  to  ensure  Western  Asia  at  once  the  rights 
we  have  purchased  for  ourselves  in  the  course  of 
centuries  at  a  great  price.  The  conflict  is  not  merely 
political,  but  industrial  and  social.  It  is  a  struggle 
between  two  civilisations ;  between  the  ideals  of  the 
Moslem  world  and  those  of  Christendom.  Islam 
has  run  its  roots  deep  for  thirteen  centuries  into  all 
the  ideals  of  the  East.  Architecture,  art,  music, 
social  life,  language,  literature — all  these  by  their 
presence,  or  by  their  absence,  proclaim  the  power  of 
Mohammed  and  his  faith.  You  might  as  well  try 
to  pick  out  the  fossils  from  a  limestone  rock  with  your 
finger  nail  as  to  remove  from  Arabic  literature  the 
traces  of  Mohammedanism. 

The  clash  of  modern  civilisation  against  the  teach- 
ings of  Islam  is  evident  on  every  hand.  When  it 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  125 

was  prGp©s«d~To"adbpt~^nrapean  time  for  Turkey, 
the  clerical  party  made  such  an  uproar  that  the 
President  of  the  Chamber  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  House  and  the  motion  was  withdrawn.  So  the 
days  continue  to  begin  at  sunset,  and  watches  must 
be  reset  every  day  because  of  the  Koran.  The  new 
railway  to  Mecca  is  fitted  up  with  a  chapel  car  in  the 
shape  of  a  mosque.  This  car  allows  pilgrims  to 
perform  their  devotions  during  the  journey,  and  has 
a  minaret.  Around  the  sides  are  verses  from  the 
Koran,  a  chart  at  one  end  indicates  the  direction  of 
prayer,  and  at  the  other  end  are  vessels  for  the  ritual 
ablutions.  Will  the  orthodox  Arabs  consider  such 
prayer  de  luxe  in  accord  with  Mohammed's  teachings  ? 
As  long  as  Mohammed  and  his  teaching  are  the  ideals 
of  conduct  and  the  standard  of  character,  there  must 
be  this  clash  between  modern  civilisation  and  the 
unchangeable  standards  of  Arabian  mediae valism. 
If  it  is  impossible  to  change  the  curriculum  of  El 
Azhar  University  in  Cairo,  will  that  institution  or 
Robert  College  control  the  thought  of  Western 
Asia  ? 

When  freedom  was  proclaimed  in  Persia  and 
Turkey,  newspapers  sprang  up  like  mushrooms,  and 
nearly  all  of  them  were  advocates  of  liberty,  equality, 
and  freedom.  In  Teheran  the  names  of  the  journals 
themselves  were  indicative  of  progress.  The  news- 
boys cried  out  their  wares  and  sold  copies  of  The 
Assembly,  Civilisation,  The  Cry  of  the  Country,  The 
True  Dawn,  Progress,  and  Knowledge.  The  French 
Revue  du  Monde  Musulman  published  a  list  of  no 
less  than  seven  hundred  and  forty-seven  newspapers 
and  magazines  which  had  been  issued  in  Turkey 
since  24th  July  1908,  the  birthday  of  liberty.  The 
old  order  of  the  press  has  gone.  Censorship  has 


126    THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

ceased,  but  whither  is  the  new  journalism  drifting  ? 
It  is  very  significant  that  some  of  the  leading  papers 
are  already  the  mouthpieces  of  intolerance  and  show 
a  sullen  attitude  toward  Christianity  and  reform, 
stating  that  the  Constitution  is  destructive  of  the 
sacred  law  of  Mohammed. 

The  position  of  womanhood  will  also  be  determined 
in  the  coming  struggle.  Some  of  the  women  them- 
selves are  asserting  their  rights,  abolishing  the  use  of 
the  veil,  and  claiming  the  privileges  and  honour  of 
womanhood.  There  is  loud  demand  for  female 
education.  Judge  Kasim  Ameen,  a  leading  Moslem 
in  Cairo,  published  two  books  on  The  Emancipation 
of  Womanhood  which  have  had  a  wide  circulation 
in  Western  Asia.  He  exposes  the  evils  of  polygamy, 
and  urges  that  it  be  prohibited  by  law.  "  Poly- 
gamy." says  he,  "  produces  jealousies,  hatred, 
intrigues,  and  crimes  innumerable.  Many  critics 
claim  that  women  in  the  harems  are  happy.  How 
do  they  know  ?  Have  they  any  knowledge  of  harem 
life  ?  "  No  wonder  these  books  aroused  a  storm  of 
opposition  and  bitter  reply.  To  prohibit  polygamy 
by  law  would  be  to  abrogate  the  Koran  and  to 
stigmatise  the  Prophet.  Civilisation  alone  will  not 
end  the  horrors  of  Islam  behind  the  veil  in  Persia 
and  Arabia.  Pierre  Loti's  Desenchantees  shows  that 
the  civilisation  of  the  harem  without  emancipation 
means  moral  suicide  !  Only  Christ  can  emancipate 
Moslem  womanhood,  and  three-fourths  of  all  the 
women  in  Western  Asia  are  still  under  the  yoke  of 
this  awful  creed,  suffering  the  burden  of  tyranny  and 
oppression. 

There  can  be  no  real  liberty  in  any  department  of 
life  under  Moslem  rule.  Fifty  years  ago  the  Sultan 
said  in  his  great  edict  of  emancipation  :  "  All  forms 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  127 

of  religion  shall  be  allowed  to  exist  in  my  realm 
without  let  or  hindrance,  and  no  subject  shall  be 
molested  in  the  exercise  of  his  faith.  None  shall  be 
forced  to  renounce  his  religion."  Fifty  years  ago 
this  Constitution  declared  that  no  one  in  the  bounds 
of  the  Turkish  Empire  should  be  persecuted  for  his 
religion. 

Fifty  years  ago  there  was  religious  liberty  on 
paper.  Three  years  ago  there  was  religious  liberty 
on  the  streets.  Moslem  and  Armenian  embraced 
each  other.  In  great  capitals  over  arches  of 
triumph  you  could  read,  "  Liberty,  Equality,  Fra- 
ternity." "  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning 
of  wisdom."  People  were  frantic  with  joy.  They 
held  memorial  services  over  the  Armenians  killed  in 
the  massacres  years  ago  and  over  the  Turks  who  had 
died  in  the  revolution.  It  seemed  the  dawn  of  a 
new  era. 

And  then  came  Adana.  Yes,  Adana.  If  there  is  a 
single  word  that  would  stir  the  passion  in  the  blood  of 
age  and  make  an  infant's  sinews  strong  as  steel  it  is 
that  single  word  "  Adana." 

And  if  Jesus  Christ's  love  is  to  be  our  example, 
then  after  we  say  "  Adana,"  and  after  we  read 
"  Adana,"  you  and  1  must  say,  as  He  said  :  "  Love 
your  enemies.  Do  good  to  them  that  hate  you. 
Pray  for  those  that  despitefully  use  you  and  per- 
secute you ;  that  you  may  be  the  children  of  your 
Father  which  is  heaven."  And  here  is  the  record, 
not  the  sensational  reports  of  the  press,  not  the 
letters  of  missionaries  written  in  the  terror  of  their 
suffering  and  sorrow  and  despair,  but  the  sum- 
ming up  in  cold  blood  at  Boston,  in  the  office  of 
the  American  Board's  Monthly  after  the  storm  was 
over: 


128    THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

"  The  atrocity  with  which  these  Moslems  devised 
tortures  and  insults  to  increase  the  agony  of  those  they 
killed  was  truly  fiendish,  almost  unbelievable,  and  far 
too  horrible  to  relate  in  detail.  Solemn  promises  were 
violated,  and  whole  villages  were  tricked  into  giving  up 
their  arms  that  they  might  be  slaughtered  without  means 
of  defence,  like  rats  in  a  hole.  Women  were  compelled 
to  watch  while  their  husbands  and  children  were  killed 
before  their  eyes ;  groups  were  told  off  and  marched  to 
some  convenient  place,  where,  instead  of  being  shot  as 
they  entreated  and  begged,  they  were  mercilessly  hacked 
to  pieces,  men  and  women  and  little  children,  as  it  was 
said,  '  Not  to  waste  powder  and  bullets  on  such  swine.' 
Dead  and  wounded  were  then  piled  together  and  fires 
built  to  consume  them.  Mothers  with  newborn  babies 
were  dragged  from  their  hiding  places  and  life  beaten  out 
of  them.  Women  and  girls  were  reserved  for  a  worse 
fate.  Everywhere  there  was  an  orgy  of  hate  and  lust, 
with  hardly  a  hand  lifted  to  end  the  struggle." 

The  fury  of  that  mob  has  ceased,  but  the  character 
of  Islam  has  not  changed.  It  was  not  a  merry 
Christmas  in  Cilicia,  with  twenty  thousand  orphans 
uncared  for  and  widows  crying  to  God  for  the  aveng- 
ing of  their  slain.  And  there  has  been  no  vengeance 
nor  a  just  meting  out  of  adequate  punishment. 

What  does  it  mean  ?  It  means  the  life  and  death 
struggle  of  men  who  believe  their  religion,  who  perse- 
cute for  their  religion.  It  means  also  that  at  the  back 
of  Adana  (God  grant  it)  there  may  have  been  Sauls 
of  Tarsus  by  the  score,  who  breathed  threatening  and 
slaughter  against  the  Church  of  God,  because  already 
the  arrow  of  conviction  was  in  their  souls,  and  they 
were  kicking  against  the  goads  of  the  Christ.  Not  in 
vain  for  fifty  years  have  the  American  missionaries  in 
Turkey,  like  Miner  Rogers  and  Henry  Maurer,  poured 
out  their  life  and  their  love  and  scattered  the  Word  of 


MOSQUE  IN  WESTERN  CHINA 

*  "i 


MOSQUE  AT  LAGOS,  WEST  AFRICA 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  129 

God  by  tens  of  thousands  of  copies.  ;t  Whatsoever 
a  man  soweth,"  God  saith,  "that  shall  he  also  reap; 
and  as  sure  as  God's  law,  we  may  look  upon  Turkey 
as  the  coming  nation  of  the  future  in  Western  Asia. 
For  if  anything  is  true,  it  is  this,  that  Western  Asia  is 
through  and  through  religious.  In  Arabia  when  they 
quarrel,  they  begin  by  calling  their  enemy  a  swine  ; 
they  go  further  when  they  call  him  a  Jew  ;  then  they 
say  he  is  a  Christian  ;  and  if  they  want  to  rise  to  the 
very  height  of  all  vituperative,  they  say,  "  That  man  is 
a  Kafir,  he  is  a  man  without  faith."  In  Turkey  you 
cannot  insult  a  man  with  a  more  damning  insult  than 
to  say  of  him  that  he  is  dinsiz,  a  man  without  religion. 
What  a  wonderful  part  of  the  world,  where  the  fact 
of  not  having  a  faith  in  the  supernatural  brands  a  man 
as  belonging  to  the  very  lowest  caste  of  society ! 

There  is  not  the  least  doubt  that  tens  of  thousands 
of  Moslems  in  Turkey  and  Persia,  and  even  in  Arabia, 
are  intellectually  convinced  of  the  truth  of  Christianity 
as  opposed  to  Islam.  The  philosophical  disintegration 
of  Islam,  which  began  in  Persia  by  the  rise  of  Moslem 
sects,  is  now  being  hastened  by  means  of  newspaper 
discussions.  There  is  a  general  unrest.  There  are 
frantic  attempts  to  save  the  ship  by  throwing  over- 
board much  of  the  old  cargo.  The  attack  on  orthodox 
Mohammedanism  was  never  so  keen  or  strong  on  the 
part  of  any  missionary  as  has  been  the  attack  from 
those  inside  Islam.  If  you  will  read  the  report  of  the 
Mecca  Conference,  when  forty  Moslems  met  together 
in  secret  conclave  to  point  out  the  causes  of  decay 
in  their  religion  and  listed  them — fifty  and  more 
defects  in  this  religion  of  their  Prophet — and  published 
the  list  as  a  document  to  scatter  over  the  Moslem 
world,  you  will  no  longer  accuse  any  missionary 
of  dealing  harshly  with  this  tissue  of  falsehoods 
9 


130    THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

buttressed  by  some  great  truths  which  we  call  Islam. 
If  Islam  reformed  is  Islam  no  longer,  then  what  will 
take  the  place  of  the  old  traditions  ?  When  the  shriek 
of  the  locomotive  is  heard  at  Mecca,  will  Arabia  sleep  on 
in  its  patriarchal  sleep  ?  Will  the  nomads  beat  their 
swords  into  ploughshares  and  their  spears  into  priming- 
hooks,  when  modern  irrigation  transforms  the  desert 
into  a  garden  ?  Will  Mohammedanism  with  its  ideals 
prevail,  or  Christianity  ?  Will  polygamy  or  mono- 
gamy ?  Will  a  free  press  or  a  press  that  is  throttled  ? 
Will  the  Constitution  or  the  Koran  be  the  law  of 
Western  Asia  ?  Will  there  be  more  Adanas  or  will 
there  be  more  proclamations  of  Liberty,  Equality, 
Fraternity  ?  Will  the  ideal  of  character  be  Mohammed 
or  Christ  ?  For,  believe  me,  in  the  final  issue  in  the 
last  analysis,  the  struggle  now  going  on  in  Western 
Asia  in  hearts,  in  homes,  in  parliaments,  in  the  press, 
is  the  struggle  between  two  great  personalities. 

I  wish  I  might  call  upon  any  Moslem  mullah  to 
whom  I  could  speak  the  Arabic  tongue  and  ask  him  one 
question  and  let  his  answers  convince  you.  I  will 
ask  the  question,  and  any  missionary  will  tell  you  that 
this  Moslem  mullah  would  answer  "  Yes."  I  will 
ask  my  Moslem  friend  whether  the  words  that  I  now 
quote  are  not  every  one  of  them  true  as  regards  the 
Prophet  Mohammed,  according  to  Moslem  teaching  : 
"  Who  is  the  first-born  of  all  creation.  For  in  him 
were  all  things  created,  in  the  heavens  and  upon  the 
earth,  things  visible  and  things  invisible,  whether 
thrones  or  dominions  or  principalities  or  powers. 
All  things  have  been  created  through  him  and  unto 
him,  and  in  him  all  things  consist,  and  he  is  the  head 
of  the  body  of  the  church  of  Islam,  who  is  the  beginning 
ing,  the  first-born  ;  that  in  all  things  Mohammed 
might  have  the  pre-eminence."  That  is  good  orthodox 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  131 

Mohammedanism.  I  can  match  every  statement 
taken  from  the  Apostle  Paul  in  Mohammedan  tradi- 
tion ;  I  can  match  every  statement  in  a  single  Moham- 
medan hymn  called  "  The  Poem  of  the  Mantle," 
in  which  they  say,  "  All  glory  and  praise  be  to 
Mohammed,  the  glory  of  history,  the  first-born  of  all 
creatures."  But  you  do  not  believe  that.  Hear 
the  words  of  Isaiah  :  "  Jehovah,  that  is  My  name, 
and  My  glory  will  I  not  give  to  another,  nor  My  praise 
to  graven  images."  That  is  the  issue  in  Western  Asia. 
And  if  that  issue  means  a  struggle,  and  a  struggle  to 
the  end,  then  you  and  I  must  accept  that  issue  or  prove 
disloyal  to  Him  whom  we  call  our  King,  "  in  whom 
dwelleth  all  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead  bodily  "  — 
not  in  Mohammed.  In  Him  are  hid  all  the  treasures 
of  wisdom  and  knowledge.  He  is  the  ideal  of 
character,  not  Mohammed.  Thou,  O  Christ,  art  all 
they  want.  Do  you  believe  it  ?  Will  you  give  Christ 
to  them  ?  That  is  the  issue  of  the  conflict. 

III.  And  what  is  the  hope  of  victory  ?  The 
victory  is  not  hanging  in  the  balance.  It  is  no 
question  of  a  final  issue.  It  is  merely  a  question 
whether  it  shall  be  now  or  shall  be  long  deferred. 
God  has  thrown  open  wide  the  doors,  and  shown  us 
men  inside  the  camp  who  are  prepared  to  surrender 
the  keys  of  the  whole  situation.  He  has  unmuzzled 
the  press,  and  given  us,  not  as  a  promise  or  a  prophecy, 
but  as  newspaper  history — "  Be  of  good  cheer,  I 
have  overcome  Persia,  I  have  overcome  Turkey,  I 
have  overcome  Arabia."  Where  is  our  courage,  that 
we  hang  back  ?  Fear  sees  giants,  but  faith  sees  only 
God.  I  never  deny  the  struggle,  but  gain  faith  from 
that  wonderful  parable  of  Jesus  Christ  when  I  think 
of  the  Moslem  world  and  of  Arabia  :  "  When  a  strong 


132    THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

man,  fully  armed,  guardeth  his  palace,  his  goods  are 
at  peace  ;  but  when  a  stronger  than  he  shall  come, 
he  taketh  from  him  all  the  armour  in  which  he  trusted 
and  divideth  his  spoil."  To-day  has  this  Scripture 
been  fulfilled  before  our  very  eyes.  This  day  there 
are  glorious  opportunities  for  every  man  and  woman 
who  volunteers  for  Western  Asia.  Every  one  of  the 
mission  stations  is  fearfully  undermanned,  and  calls 
loudly  for  reinforcements.  Educational,  industrial, 
medical  opportunities  abound  everywhere  throughout 
Western  Asia.  Doors  of  opportunity  are  open  in 
every  one  of  the  great  cities  to  prepare  not  only  the 
teachers  of  to-morrow,  but  the  statesmen  to  guide 
the  ship  of  state  over  the  stormy  seas  of  social  and 
religious  unrest. 

And  look  beyond.  In  every  unoccupied  part  of 
the  field  there  is  such  unique  opportunity  as  never 
has  been  since  the  days  of  the  apostles  ;  and  there 
are  glorious  impossibilities  in  these  unoccupied  fields. 
There  is  the  greater  part  of  Russian  Asia,  there  are 
four  provinces  in  Arabia,  there  is  one  province  in 
Persia  without  a  single  missionary.  It  is  easy  for  us 
to  sing  as  soldiers  of  the  Cross,  "  Like  a  mighty  army 
moves  the  Church  of  God."  It  does  not  move.  It 
hugs  the  trenches,  and  out  there  you  are  leaving 
single  workers  to  die  alone.  Hear  their  cry.  Hear 
their  prayer  : 

"  More  than  half  beaten,  but  fearless, 

Facing  the  storm  and  the  night ; 
Breathless  and  reeling,  but  tearless, 

Here  in  the  lull  of  the  fight, 
I  who  bow  not  but  before  Thee, 

God  of  the  fighting  Clan, 
Lifting  my  fists  I  implore  Thee, 

Give  me  the  heart  of  a  man  ! 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  133 

What  though  I  live  with  the  winners, 

Or  perish  with  those  who  fall ; 
Only  the  cowards  are  sinners, 

Fighting  the  fight  is  all. 
Strong  is  my  foe — he  advances  ! 

Snapt  is  my  blade,  O  Lord  ! 
See  the  proud  banners  and  lances  ! 

Oh  spare  me  this  stub  of  a  sword  !  " 

That  is  the  cry  that  goes  up  from  your  missionaries, 
lonely  soldiers  who  have  waited  long  for  reinforce- 
ments with  hope  deferred,  but  with  hearts  on  fire. 

Thank  God  also  for  the  inspiration  of  the  pioneers 
who  died  not  having  received  the  promise.  No  part 
of  the  world  has  a  richer  heritage  of  predecessors. 
Upon  whom  has  their  mantle  fallen  ?  Who  will 
smite  the  Jordan  and  see  it  part  asunder  ?  Where  is 
the  Lord  God  of  Henry  Marty n  and  Keith  Falconer ; 
the  God  of  Parsons  and  Fiske,  of  Goodell  and  Dwight, 
of  Hamlin,  Van  Dyck,  and  Bishop  French  ?  He  can 
do  it  if  He  will. 

In  the  impending  struggle  throughout  all  Western 
Asia,  the  clash  of  mediaeval  with  modern  thought,  of 
barbarism  against  civilisation,  of  the  Koran  against 
the  Bible,  of  Christ  against  Mohammed,  what  part 
shall  this  our  generation  play  ?  No  field  in  the 
world  calls  for  a  more  dauntless  faith  and  more  fear- 
less manhood  than  these  lands  of  Western  Asia.  But 
love  is  strong  as  death ;  love  laughs  at  locksmiths, 
and  there  are  no  closed  doors  for  the  Gospel  of  the 
living  Christ.  It  is  now  or  never  for  self-sacrificing 
obedience. 

Far  above  the  fight  is  our  Captain,  and  every 
missionary  to  the  Moslem  world  turns  to  that  nine- 
teenth chapter  of  the  Book  of  Revelation.  I  believe 
God  gave  it  to  us  for  this  struggle  in  Western  Asia — 


134    THE  IMPENDING  STRUGGLE 

the  last  portrait  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  "  I 
saw  heaven  opened,  and  I  saw  a  white  horse,  and  he 
that  sat  upon  him  was  called  Faithful  and  True,  and 
in  righteousness  he  doth  judge  and  make  war."  And 
the  armies  of  Heaven  followed  him,  until  the  end  of 
the  struggle  is  complete  and  final  victory  for  the  Son 
of  God. 

More  than  twenty  years  ago  I  reached  Arabia  for  the 
first  time,  and  walked  beyond  the  wall  of  Jiddah  to 
the  great  gate  that  leads  out  to  Mecca.  I  did  not 
know  much  Arabic,  but  I  could  spell  out  the  words 
over  the  gate,  and  they  were  these  :  "  Ya  Fattah  " 
(O  thou  who  openest).  Is  not  that  gate  a  symbol,  not 
only  of  Mecca  with  its  closed  doors,  but  of  every 
difficulty,  of  every  glorious  impossibility  ?  I  thought 
then  and  I  think  now  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
"  On  whose  shoulders  are  the  keys  of  the  house  of 
David,  who  openeth  and  no  man  shutteth,  who 
shutteth  and  no  man  openeth."  To  His  Kingdom 
there  are  no  frontiers  ;  in  His  Kingdom  there  are  no 
passports  ;  in  His  Kingdom  there  is  absolute  liberty. 
He  is  Lord  of  all.  Will  you  accept  His  challenge  and 
go? 

Above  all,  think  of  the  inspiration  of  His  life  in 
Western  Asia.  If  God  so  loved  the  world,  He  loved  it 
as  a  unit ;  but  if  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  Man, 
He  loves  Western  Asia.  His  manger  and  His  Cross 
stood  there.  In  Western  Asia  His  blood  was  spilled. 
In  Western  Asia  He  walked  the  hills.  There  His 
tears  fell  for  Jerusalem.  There  His  eye  still  rests. 
Thither  He  will  come  again.  It  was  in  Western  Asia 
that  He  said,  "  All  authority  is  given  unto  Me  "  ; 
and  although  for  thirteen  centuries  His  royal  rights 
have  been  disputed  by  a  usurper,  they  have  never  been 
abrogated.  Shall  we  give  Western  Asia  to  Him,  or 


IN  WESTERN  ASIA  135 

/"> 

shall  Western  Asia  remain  the  Empire  of  Mohammed  ? 
Shall  Bethlehem  hear  five  times  a  day  "  There  is  no 
god  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is  God's  apostle  "  ?  and 
shall  not  a  single  one  of  us  dare  go,  if  God  will,  to 
Mecca  itself,  the  very  stronghold  of  Islam,  and  preach 
the  Gospel  of  the  great  King  ? 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE  CLOCK,  THE  CALENDAR,  AND 
THE  KORAN 


137 


"  ALMIGHTY  God,  our  Heavenly  Father,  Who  hast  made 
of  one  blood  all  nations,  and  hast  promised  that  many 
shall  come  from  the  East  and  sit  down  with  Abraham  in 
Thy  Kingdom  :  We  pray  for  Thy  two  hundred  million 
prodigal  children  in  Moslem  lands  who  are  still  afar  off, 
that  they  may  be  brought  nigh  by  the  blood  of  Christ. 
Look  upon  them  in  pity  because  they  are  ignorant  of  Thy 
truth.  Take  away  their  pride  of  intellect  and  blindness 
of  heart,  and  reveal  to  them  the  surpassing  beauty  and 
power  of  Thy  Son  Jesus  Christ.  Convince  them  of  their 
sin  in  rejecting  the  atonement  of  the  only  Saviour.  Give 
moral  courage  to  those  who  love  Thee,  that  they  may 
boldly  confess  Thy  name.  Hasten  the  day  of  perfect 
freedom  in  Turkey,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan. 
Make  Thy  people  willing  in  this  new  day  of  opportunity 
in  China,  India,  and  Egypt.  Send  forth  reapers  where 
the  harvest  is  ripe,  and  faithful  ploughmen  to  break 
furrows  in  lands  still  neglected.  May  the  pagan  tribes 
of  Africa  and  Malaysia  not  fall  a  prey  to  Islam,  but  be 
won  for  Christ.  Bless  the  ministry  of  healing  in  every 
hospital,  and  the  ministry  of  love  at  every  mission 
station.  May  all  Moslem  children  in  mission  schools  be 
led  to  Christ  and  accept  Him  as  their  personal  Saviour. 
Strengthen  converts,  restore  backsliders,  and  give  all 
those  who  labour  among  Mohammedans  the  tenderness  of 
Christ.  So  that  bruised  reeds  may  become  pillars  of 
His  Church,  and  smoking  flaxwicks  burning  and  shining 
lights.  Make  bare  Thine  arm,  O  God,  and  show  Thy 
power.  All  our  expectation  is  from  Thee.  Father,  the 
hour  has  come ;  glorify  Thy  Son  in  the  Mohammedan 
world,  and  fulfil  through  Him  the  prayer  of  Abraham  Thy 
friend,  '  Oh,  that  Ishmael  might  live  before  Thee.'  For 
Jesus'  sake.  AMEN." 


138 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  CLOCK,  THE  CALENDAR,  AND 
THE  KORAN 

THE  religion  which  Mohammed  founded  bears 
everywhere  the  imprint  of  his  life  and  character.  He 
was  not  only  the  prophet  but  the  prophecy  of  Islam. 
This  is  true  not  only  as  regards  matters  of  faith  and 
ritual,  but  also  of  many  things  which  at  first  sight 
would  seem  to  have  no  connection  with  either. 

The  connection  of  the  three  words  in  the  title  may 
seem  merely  fortuitous  or  alliterative  to  the  reader : 
to  the  Moslem  their  connection  is  perfectly  evident, 
because  the  clock  and  the  calendar  are  set  back  and 
regulated  by  the  book  of  the  Prophet.  The  Moslem 
calendar,  with  its  twelve  lunar  months  and  its  two 
great  feast  days,  is  fixed  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
Koran  and  orthodox  tradition,  based  upon  the  practice 
of  Mohammed  himself.  The  fast  month  of  Ramadhan, 
for  example,  is  so  called  from  the  Arabic  root  which 
means  to  burn,  and  before  the  days  of  Islam  this 
month,  in  accordance  with  its  name,  always  fell  in 
the  heat  of  summer.  Because  of  the  change  in  the 
calendar,  and  because  Mohammed  abolished  the 
intercalary  months,  the  fast  occurs  eleven  days  earlier 
each  year  and  travels  all  round  the  seasons.  Although 
the  ancient  Arabian  year  was  composed  of  twelve 
lunar  months,  the  Arabs  about  the  year  412  intro- 

139 


140    THE  CLOCK,  THE  CALENDAR, 

duced  a  system  of  intercalation  whereby  one  month 
additional  was  inserted  every  three  years.  Mohammed 
abolished  this  scientific  practice,  and  we  read  in  the 
Koran  (Surah  ix.  36,  37) :  "  Verily,  the  number  of 
months  with  God  is  twelve  months  in  God's  Book, 
on  the  day  when  He  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  ;  of  these  are  four  that  are  sacred  ;  that  is  the 
subsisting  religion." 

By  this  one  verse  of  the  Koran,  which  is  unchanged 
and  irrevocable,  the  whole  Moslem  world  is  practically 
bound  fast  to  the  lunar  calendar.  Beidhawi  and 
other  Moslem  commentators  try  to  explain  these 
verses  in  such  a  way  as  to  hide  the  fact  that  the 
Arabs  in  the  "  Time  of  Ignorance  "  were  far  more 
scientific  in  their  calendar  than  were  Mohammed 
himself  or  the  Arabs  who  followed  his  leading.  In  the 
Commentary  of  Mohammed  Hussein  Nisabori,  printed 
in  the  margin  of  the  thirty  volume  Commentary  by 
Et-Tabari,  we  find,  however,  the  true  explanation. 
After  giving  the  usual  explanations,  which  do  not 
explain,  he  says  : 

"  There  is,  however,  another  explanation  of  this  verse. 
The  meaning  of  nasi  is  the  adding  of  a  month  to  certain 
years  so  that  the  lunar  year  will  be  equivalent  to  the 
solar ;  for  the  lunar  year  of  twelve  months  consists  of 
354  days  and  a  fifth  or  sixth  of  a  day,  as  we  know  from 
the  science  of  astronomy  and  the  observations  of  as- 
tronomers. But  the  solar  year,  which  is  equivalent  to 
the  return  of  the  sun  from  any  fixed  point  in  the  firma- 
ment to  the  same  position,  consists  of  365  days  and  nearly 
a  fourth  of  a  day.  Therefore  the  lunar  year  is  less  than  the 
solar  year  by  ten  days,  twenty-one  and  one-fifth  hours, 
nearly,  and  by  reason  of  this  difference  the  lunar  months 
change  from  season  to  season ;  so  that,  for  example, 
the  month  of  pilgrimage  will  sometimes  occur  in  winter, 


AND  THE  KORAN  141 

sometimes  in  summer,  or  in  the  spring  or  autumn.  In 
the  '  Time  of  Ignorance,'  they  were  not  pleased  when  the 
pilgrimage  occurred  in  an  unsuitable  time  for  their 
merchandise.  Therefore  they  arranged  for  a  leap  year 
with  an  additional  month,  so  that  the  hajj  should  always 
occur  in  the  autumn  ;  so  they  increased  the  nineteen 
lunar  years  by  seven  lunar  months,  so  that  it  became 
nineteen  solar  years,  and  in  the  following  year  they  added 
a  month.  Then,  again,  in  the  fifth  year ;  then  in  the 
seventh,  the  tenth,  the  thirteenth,  the  sixteenth,  the 
eighteenth  year,  etc.  They  learned  this  method  from 
the  Jews  and  the  Christians,  who  also  follow  it  on  account 
of  their  feasts.  And  the  extra  month  was  called  Nasi." 

Nisabori  goes  on  to  give  a  tradition  according 
to  which  Mohammed  himself  abrogated  this  practice 
when  he  made  his  last  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and 
established  the  ritual  of  the  hajj. 

The  origin  of  the  lunar  calendar  is,  therefore, 
based  not  only  on  the  Koran  text  but  on  tradition. 
The  inconvenience  of  this  reckoning,  however,  is 
being  increasingly  felt,  and  more  and  more  the  solar 
year  and  the  dates  of  the  Greek  calendar  are  being 
used  by  Moslems.  We  may  read,  for  example,  on 
the  title-pages  of  all  the  leading  Cairo  and  Con- 
stantinople dailies,  even  those  published  by  Moslems, 
Wednesday,  the  2'8th  of  Safar  1331,  and  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  page,  5th  February  1913.  To 
convert  a  Moslem  date  into  one  of  our  own  era  is 
not  altogether  a  simple  matter.  "  To  express  the 
Mohammedan  date,"  says  Dr.  Forbes,  "  in  years  and 
decimals  of  a  year  ;  multiply  by  -970,225  ;  to  the 
product  add  621,54  and  the  sum  will  be  the  precise 
period  of  the  Christian  era."  According  to  Murray, 
44  If  it  is  desired  to  find  the  year  of  the  Hegira  which 
comes  in  a  given  year  of  the  Christian  era,  it  is 


142     THE  CLOCK,  THE  CALENDAR, 

sufficient  to  subtract  621  from  the  year  given  and 
to  multiply  the  remainder  by  1/0307 " ;  while, 
according  to  Hughes'  Dictionary  of  Islam,  if  one 
desires  to  find  the  precise  Christian  date  correspond- 
ing to  any  given  year  of  Islam,  the  following  rule 
obtains  : 

"  From  the  given  number  of  Musalman  years,  deduct 
three  per  cent.,  and  to  the  remainder  add  the  number 
621,54  ;  the  sum  is  the  period  of  the  Christian  era  at 
which  the  given  current  Musalman  year  ends.  This 
simple  rule  is  founded  on  the  fact  that  100  lunar  years 
are  very  nearly  equal  to  ninety-seven  solar  years,  there 
being  only  eight  days  of  excess  in  the  former  period  ; 
hence  to  the  result  found,  as  just  stated,  it  will  be  requisite 
to  add  eight  days  as  a  correction  for  every  century." 

A  writer  in  the  Egypt  Nationalist  organ,  Es  Sha'b, 
who  signs  himself  Al  Zarkawy,  proposes  to  modify 
the  lunar  year  in  a  thoroughly  Mohammedan  fashion 
and  call  it  the  Hegira  solar  year.  He  professes  to 
know  from  Moslem  tradition  that  the  date  on  which 
the  Prophet  emigrated  from  Mecca  to  Medina  was 
Friday  the  twelfth  of  Rabi'a  i.,  corresponding  to 
22nd  September  622  A.D.  It  was  seventeen  years 
after  that  date,  according  to  this  writer,  in  the 
caliphate  of  Omar,  that  the  year  in  which  Mohammed 
went  to  Medina  was  taken  as  the  beginning  of  the 
Mohammedan  era  ;  the  first  Muharram  of  that  year 
622  being  Thursday,  15th  July.  The  writer  proposes 
that,  as  the  lunar  calendar  is  inexact  for  business 
purposes  and  the  Koran  requires  it  for  religious 
purposes,  the  Moslem  world  should  introduce  a 
Hegira  solar  date,  so  that  periodical  events  will  not 
change  from  year  to  year,  although  the  feasts,  etc., 
which  are  based  on  the  appearance  of,  the  moon, 


AND  THE  KORAN  143 

will  be  fixed  as  heretofore  by  the  lunar  calendar. 
He  also  finds  a  strange  and  providential  coincidence 
in  the  fact  that  the  day  on  which  the  Hegira  date 
began,  namely,  22nd  September  622,  was  the  first 
day  of  autumn,  when  day  and  night  are  twelve  hours 
each !  This  date  should,  therefore,  be  taken  for 
the  beginning  of  the  era  and  of  the  calendar.  The 
writer  proposes  that  the  names  of  the  months  should 
be  those  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  the  Ram,  the 
Bull,  the  Twins,  the  Lion,  etc.  The  number  of 
days  in  the  first  six  months  will  be  thirty  each,  and 
in  the  second  six  months  thirty-one.  The  sixth 
month,  however,  of  the  second  series,  namely  the 
last  month  in  the  year,  will  have  twenty-nine  days 
for  three  years,  and  thirty  days  every  fourth  year. 
Al  Zarkawy  seriously  submits  this  proposition  to 
the  public,  whose  criticism  he  invites,  and  with 
faith  in  his  own  proposition  dates  the  article  the 
23rd  of  the  month  of  Capricorn,  1291  of  the  Hegira 
solar  year,  which  corresponds  to  the  5th  of  the 
month  of  Safir  of  the  Hegira  lunar  year  1330. 

To  make  confusion  worse  confounded  as  regards 
the  Moslem  calendar,  we  must  remember  also  that 
the  date  of  the  Mohammedan  months  at  present, 
in  nearly  every  part  of  the  Moslem  world,  is  fixed 
not  by  the  almanac  or  calendar  prepared  beforehand, 
but  depends  upon  the  actual  observation  of  the 
new  moon  by  competent  witnesses.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  new  moon  which  appears  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  month  of  fasting.  According  to 
Moslem  tradition,  based  upon  the  practice  of  the 
Prophet,  it  is  necessary  for  these  witnesses  to  appear 
before  the  Kadhi,  or  local  judge.  The  result  is, 
with  the  uncertainty  of  weather,  and  frequently  the 
unreliability  of  the  witnesses,  that  towns  in  Arabia 


144     THE  CLOCK,  THE  CALENDAR, 

only  a  few  miles  apart  will  begin  and  end  the  month 
on  a  different  day.  In  Turkey  and  in  Egypt,  as 
well  as  in  India,  Moslems  are  beginning  to  follow 
the  printed  calendar,  but  among  the  orthodox  the 
practice  is  considered  decidedly  doubtful.  One  of 
the  leading  papers  in  Alexandria  recently  contained 
a  notice  by  the  head  of  the  Moslem  religious  fraternity 
calling  for  men  of  keen  vision  and  faithful  character 
who  would  be  on  the  look-out  for  the  appearance 
of  the  new  moon,  so  that  the  observation  of  the 
fact  and  the  feast  days  of  Islam  might  be  accurately 
fixed  and  not  be  dependent  upon  hearsay  ! 

Before  the  advent  of  Mohammed,  the  Arabs  al- 
ready possessed  considerable  knowledge  of  practical 
astronomy.  The  Bedouins  on  their  night  journeys, 
having  no  other  guide  than  the  moon  and  the 
brightest  stars,  made  observations  and  crude  astro- 
nomical deductions.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the 
second  century  of  the  Hegira  that  the  scientific 
study  of  astronomy  began  under  the  influence  of 
India.  Moslem  astronomers  accepted  all  the  funda- 
mental features  of  the  Ptolemaic  system  of  the 
universe,  together  with  its  errors.  In  the  fourth 
century  A.H.  the  possibility  of  the  earth's  revolution 
was  discussed,  but  in  the  following  centuries  and 
among  orthodox  Mohammedans  to-day  its  immo- 
bility is  generally  accepted.  Only  Western  education, 
as  in  Egypt,  Turkey,  and  Persia,  has  changed 
opinion.  In  El  Azhar  the  astronomy  taught  is  still 
Ptolemaic.  According  to  C.  A.  Nallino,  the  Arabs 
outstripped  their  predecessors,  the  Greeks,  "  in 
mathematical  astronomy,  in  the  number  and  quality 
of  their  instruments  and  the  technique  of  their 
observations."  It  is,  therefore,  the  more  remarkable 
that  the  solar  calendar  was  not  adopted  long  since 


AND  THE  KORAN  145 

in  Moslem  lands.  The  last  great  Moslem  astronomer 
was  Ulug  Beg  of  Samarkand  (A.D.  1449).  "  With 
him  the  scientific  study  of  astronomy  ceased  through- 
out the  Islamic  world  ;  henceforth  we  only  meet 
with  authors  of  elementary  manuals,  compilers  of 
almanacs,  etc.  The  real  astronomer  has  disappeared, 
and  in  his  place  we  find  only  the  muwakkit  of  the 
mosques." 

The  present  names  of  the  Moslem  months  are 
different  from  those  in  use  before  Mohammed's  time. 
The  first  month  of  the  year  is  called  Muharram, 
and  is  so  called  because  both  under  the  pagan  Arabs 
and  in  the  time  of  Mohammed  it  was  held  unlawful 
to  go  to  war  in  this  month.  The  first  ten  days  of 
it  are  observed  in  commemoration  of  the  martyrdom 
of  Al  Hussein,  and  the  tenth  day  is  the  fast  of 
'Ashur'a.  Safar  (yellow)  was  so  named  because  it 
occurred  at  a  time  when  the  leaves  bore  a  yellow 
tint.  It  is  the  most  unlucky  month  in  the  year, 
for  in  it  Adam  was  turned  out  of  Paradise  and 
Mohammed  was  taken  ill.  Rabi'a  al-Awal  and 
Rabi'a-uth-Thani  signify  the  first  and  second  spring 
months  and  used  to  occur  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  in  springtime.  Jamad-al-Awal  and  Jamad-ath- 
Thani,  the  fifth  and  sixth  months,  were,  according 
to  Caussin  de  Perceval,  so  named  because  the  earth 
then  became  hard  and  dry  (jamad)  through  scarcity 
of  rain.  The  seventh  month,  Rajab,  signifies  honoured. 
It  was  a  sacred  month  during  the  "  Time  of  Ignor- 
ance "  when  war  was  not  permitted.  Sha'ban  is 
called  the  Prophet's  month.  The  old  significance 
of  the  name  means  to  separate;  for  in  this  month, 
we  are  told,  the  Arab  tribes  separated  in  search  of 
water.  On  the  15th  day  of  this  month  occurs  the 
celebrated  "  Night  of  Recording,"  upon  which  God 
10 


146     THE  CLOCK,  THE  CALENDAR, 

is  said  to  register  all  the  actions  of  mankind  which 
they  are  to  perform  during  the  coming  year. 
Mohammed  enjoined  his  followers  to  keep  awake 
throughout  the  whole  of  this  night,  and  repeat  one 
hundred  prayers.  This  ninth  month  is  called 
Shawwal,  because  of  some  obscure  reference  to 
camels'  tails  and  Bedouin  life.  The  name  signifies 
a  tail.  On  the  first  of  this  month  occurs  the  Moslem 
feast  of  the  "  Breaking  of  the  Fast"  called  'Id-ul- 
Fitr.  The  last  two  months  in  the  year  are  called 
Dhu-al-Ka'da  and  Dhu-al-Hajj.  The  former  signifies 
the  month  of  resting  or  truce,  in  which  the  ancient 
Arabs  were  always  engaged  in  peaceful  operations ; 
the  latter,  the  month  of  the  pilgrimage.  During 
this  month  the  pilgrims  visit  Mecca.  A  visit  at  any 
other  time  does  not  in  any  way  have  the  merits  of 
a  pilgrimage.  On  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  is  the 
great  Moslem  feast  of  sacrifice,  'Id-ul-Azha. 

One  can  see  from  this  summary  that  at  least  three 
of  the  months  in  the  calendar  are  closely  linked 
to  religious  practice  and  Moslem  tradition,  and  that 
while  Islam  stands  this  part  of  the  calendar  cannot 
be  changed.  Dr.  C.  Snouck  Hurgronje  has  recently 
shown  that  the  lunar  calendar  even  controls  in  some 
measure  the  number  of  pilgrims  from  Malaysia  to 
Mecca.  According  to  Moslem  belief  the  Hajj  al  Akbar, 
or  Greater  Hajj,  which  has  special  religious  merit, 
only  occurs  when  the  great  day  of  the  pilgrimage 
(the  19th),  or  Dhu  al  Hajj,  falls  on  Friday,  which 
is  also  the  Moslem  day  of  public  worship. 

This  superstition  in  regard  to  lucky  days,  and  the 
desire  to  be  present  at  Arafat  on  a  Friday,  obtains 
great  credence  among  the  Malays,  but  as  the  date 
of  the  month  depends  on  actual  observation  at  Mecca, 
there  can  be  no  certainty. 


AND  THE  KORAN 


147 


Prince  Leone  Caetani  has  shown  in  his  recent  work, 
Annali  dell9  Islam,  that  the  exact  date  of  Mohammed's 


nvr 


UT 


•»*. 


JU 


TV 


TV 


\ 


Jbj 


t    - 


of 


vtr 


irr 


n  u 

rrt 


«nu 
r  r  « 


A   PAGE  FROM   AN  EGYPTIAN  CALENDAR. 

flight  from  Mecca  to  Medina  is  quite  uncertain. 
According  to  most  authorities  it  took  place  on 
20th  June  622  A.D.  According  to  this  calculation, 


148     THE  CLOCK,  THE  CALENDAR, 

the  Caliph  Omar  made  the  first  of  Muharram  corre- 
spond with  Thursday,  15th  July  622  A.D.  Caetani 
devotes  some  twenty  pages  to  a  discussion  of  this 
difficult  subject,  and  gives  comparative  tables  for 
every  day  in  the  Moslem  calendar  from  the  year  1  A.H. 
to  correspond  with  our  own.  (Vol.  i.  pp.  344-361.) 

The  illustration  here  given  of  a  leaf  from  a  Moslem 
calendar  published  in  Cairo  shows  the  practical  diffi- 
culties of  the  situation  in  this  capital  city.  On  either 
side  of  the  word  for  Tuesday,  the  third  day  of  the 
week,  this  calendar  gives  the  year  of  the  Hegira  and 
that  of  "  The  Birth."  Then  follow  in  large  letters 
the  ordinary  Moslem  and  Christian  date,  the  21st 
of  Rabi'a-uth-Thani  and  April.  Below  is  the  record 
of  an  event,  namely,  a  victory  of  the  Egyptian  Army 
in  the  Sudan,  on  the  corresponding  date  of  the  year 
1306.  On  either  side  of  this  chronological  note 
occur  other  dates,  viz. :  the  27th  of  Barmuda  1628 
(Coptic),  and  the  27th  of  Maart  1828  (Ottoman 
financial  year),  the  27th  of  Adar  2223  (Greek),  and 
the  22nd  of  Nisan  5672  (Hebrew).  Underneath  we 
have  given,  both  in  Arabic  and  in  European  time, 
the  five  periods  of  prayer,  and  the  rising  and  setting 
of  the  sun  and  moon.  In  addition  to  the  periods  of 
prayer  are  added  the  actual  time  of  sunrise  and  of 
high  noon,  for  the  Moslem  noon,  when  the  muezzin 
calls  for  prayer,  differs  from  high  noon  by  two 
minutes.  On  this  particular  day,  according  to 
Moslem  time,  the  former  is  at  five  hours  thirty-nine 
minutes,  and  the  latter  at  five  hours  thirty-seven 
minutes.  On  each  leaf  of  the  calendar  a  short 
quotation  from  the  traditions  is  given.  Here  it 
reads :  "  It  is  a  part  of  righteousness  to  befriend 
the  friend  of  your  father." 

Turning  from  the  Moslem  calendar  to  the  Moslem 


AND  THE  KORAN  149 

clock,  we  find  here  also  that  the  mediaeval  legislation 
of  the  Prophet  and  the  power  of  tradition  are  supreme. 
Before  clocks  and  watches  were  invented,  Moslems 
divided  the  day  and  the  night  according  to  the  prayer 
ritual,  and  this  division  still  prevails  among  the 
common  people  everywhere.  The  periods  of  prayer 
are  five,  as  is  well  known.  Daybreak,  just  after 
high  noon,  between  high  noon  and  sunset,  sunset, 
and  finally  when  the  night  closes  in.  These  prayer 
periods  are  known  respectively  as  Fijr,  Zuhr,  'Asr, 
Maghrib,  and  9Asha\  Although  the  general  duty 
of  prayer  is  enjoined  in  the  Koran,  there  is  not  a 
single  passage  where  five  periods  of  prayer  are 
mentioned  (cf.  Surah  xxx.  17,  xi.  116,  xx.  130,  xvii. 
80).  The  first  passage  is  the  most  definite,  and  reads  : 
"  Celebrated  be  the  praises  of  God  when  you  are  in 
the  evening  and  when  you  are  in  the  morning,  for 
to  Him  belongs  praise  in  the  heavens  and  the  earth, 
and  at  the  evening,  and  when  you  are  at  noon." 
The  commentators  are  agreed  that  five  prayers  a 
day  are  not  mentioned.  The  stated  periods,  as 
well  as  all  the  ritual  of  prayer,  is  therefore  based  upon 
tradition.  They  were  possibly  borrowed  from  the 
practice  of  the  Oriental  Church,  as  is  the  case  of  so 
much  else  in  the  public  prayer  ritual  of  Islam.  Basil x 
of  Cappadocia,  according  to  Dr.  Hughes,  speaks 
of  five  hours  as  suitable  for  prayer,  namely,  the 
morning,  the  third  hour,  the  sixth,  the  ninth,  and  the 
evening.  Mohammed,  however,  changed  the  times  of 
prayer  to  suit  the  Arabian  climate,  his  family  arrange- 
ments (see  the  traditions),  and  the  life  of  the  Bedouin 

*R.  Strothmann,  on  the  contrary,  believes  the  periods  were 
borrowed  from  Zoroastrianism.  Cf.  his  Kultus  der  Zaiditen,  p.  19. 
He  bases  his  conclusions  on  Goldziher's  investigation,  Revue  d. 
Hist.  d.  ReL,  1901,  p.  15. 


150     THE  CLOCK,  THE  CALENDAR, 

tribes,  to  the  great  inconvenience  of  Moslems  under 
other  skies  and  in  the  bustle  and  turmoil  of  modern 
city  life. 

Clocks  and  watches  are  found  nearly  everywhere 
to-day  in  the  Moslem  world.  In  Egypt,  India,  Algeria, 
and  Malaysia  most  Moslems  use  Western  time  because 
of  the  influence  of  European  governments.  In  Persia, 
Turkey,  Arabia,  Morocco,  Afghanistan,  and  the  rest 
of  the  Moslem  world  generally,  clocks  and  watches 
are  still  regulated  every  day  at  sunset,  which  must 
be  twelve  o'clock  exactly  by  Moslem  time  every  day 
in  the  year.  One  can  imagine  how  not  only  ordinary 
clocks,  but  costly  timepieces  are  abused  by  being 
set  back  or  forward  every  day  at  sunset ;  but  as  long 
as  the  muezzin's  cry  rings  from  the  minarets,  the 
time  of  the  day  for  the  orthodox  believer  will  be 
regulated  by  his  call,  observatories  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding. 

Popularly  speaking,  the  chief  use  of  a  clock  or  a 
watch,  in  any  case,  is  to  know  the  exact  time  for 
prayer ;  and  just  as  an  ordinary  pocket  compass  is 
known  by  the  name  of  "  Mecca  pointer "  (Kibla) 
all  over  Western  and  Central  Asia,  because  it  has 
been  found  useful  to  indicate  the  direction  of  Mecca 
to  the  travelling  pilgrim,  so  the  hands  on  the  clock 
are  real  prayer-pointers.  At  the  beginning  of  Ramad- 
han,  for  example,  there  is  often  a  brisk  and  in- 
creasing trade  in  timepieces  of  every  description,  in 
order  that  the  hours  of  fasting  and  the  hours  of 
feasting  may  be  promptly  known.  High  noon, 
according  to  Mohammendan  reckoning,  may  be 
anywhere  from  forty  minutes  past  four  to  fifty 
minutes  past  six,  in  this  latitude  (30  degrees  north) ; 
but  an  interesting  rule  to  remember  is  this,  that 
the  time  of  noon,  according  to  Mohammedan  watches 


AND  THE  KORAN  151 

and  clocks  on  any  particular  day,  subtracted  from 
twelve,  gives  the  apparent  time  of  sunset  according 
to  Western  reckoning. 

This  connection  and  confusion  of  the  clock,  the 
calendar,  and  the  Koran  bring  about  the  result  that 
the  only  time  reckoning  on  which  Christians,  Moslems, 
and  Jews  agree  in  the  Orient,  is  that  of  the  days  of 
the  week.  These  are  numbered  and  called  by  their 
numbers,  save  Friday  and  Saturday,  which  are 
known  as  the  "  day  of  assembling,"  and  the  "  day 
of  the  Sabbath."  Among  the  days  of  the  week, 
Monday,  Wednesday,  Thursday,  and  Friday  are 
esteemed  auspicious  and  lucky,  while  the  other  days 
are  considered  unlucky.  According  to  tradition 
(Mishkat  24.  1),  God  created  the  earth  on  Saturday, 
the  hills  on  Sunday,  the  trees  on  Monday,  all  un- 
pleasant things  on  Tuesday,  the  light  on  Wednesday, 
the  beasts  on  Thursday,  and  Adam,  who  was  the 
last  of  creation,  was  created  about  the  time  of  after- 
noon prayers  on  Friday. 

Friday  is  the  day  specially  appointed  for  public 
worship  throughout  the  whole  Moslem  world.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition  delivered  by  Mohammed,  "  It 
is  the  day  on  which  the  sun  rises  ;  the  day  on  which 
Adam  was  taken  into  Paradise  and  taken  out  of  it ; 
the  day  on  which  he  repented  and  on  which  he  died. 
It  will  also  be  the  day  of  Resurrection."  Although 
this  day  is  sacred  for  special  prayer  among  Moslems, 
it  is  neither  in  the  traditions  nor  in  the  Koran  con- 
sidered a  day  of  incumbent  rest.  Only  in  recent 
years,  and  with  the  rise  of  Pan-Islamism,  have 
Mohammedans  begun  to  observe  the  day  more  vigor- 
ously and  attempted  to  make  it  a  substitute  for  the 
Christian  Sabbath  in  its  character  and  in  their 
demands  as  regards  government  regulations  and 


152    CLOCK,  CALENDAR,  AND  KORAN 

privileges,  as  at  the  recent  Egyptian  Moslem  Con- 
gress.1 The  revival  of  Islam  on  these  and  other 
lines  will  doubtless  end  in  attempts  to  revise  the 
calendar  and  the  division  of  the  hours.  But  for 
the  present,  next  to  that  of  banking  and  the  taking 
of  interest  (both  forbidden  in  the  Koran),  there  is 
no  more  urgent,  practical  question  than  that  of 
the  Clock,  the  Calendar,  and  the  Koran. 

1  Cf .  Kyriakos  Mikhail,  Copts  and  Moslems  under  British  Control, 
pp.  28-31  and  p.  70. 


CHAPTER   IX 

TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 


158 


CHAPTER   IX 

TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

DR.  D.  S.  MARGOLIOUTH  recently  called  atten- 
tion to  a  noteworthy  fact,  namely,  that  Islam  in 
theory  offers  no  facilities  to  those  outside  of  its  pale 
for  the  study  of  its  character  before  they  enter.  "  A 
man  must  enrol  himself  as  a  member  first,"  he  writes, 
"  and  then  only  may  he  learn  what  his  obligations 
are.  The  Koran  may  not  be  sold  to  Unbelievers  ; 
soldiers  are  advised  not  to  take  it  with  them  into 
hostile  territory  for  fear  the  Unbeliever  should  get 
hold  of  it  ;  and  many  a  copy  bears  upon  it  a  warning 
to  Unbelievers  not  to  touch.  Pious  grammarians 
have  refused  to  teach  grammar  to  Jews  or  Christians, 
because  the  rules  were  apt  to  be  illustrated  by 
quotations  from  the  sacred  volume." 

In  how  high  a  degree  the  Arabic  language  is  to 
Moslems  a  wholly  sacred  language,  not  to  be  lightly 
regarded  nor  taught  to  unbelievers,  one  may  learn 
from  the  commentaries  on  Surah  Yusef,  the  first 
verse.  "  Those  are  the  signs  of  the  perspicuous 
Book.  Verily  we  have  revealed  it,  an  Arabic  Koran. 
Haply  ye  may  understand."  Et-Tabari,  commenting 
on  this  verse,  says  :  "  God  Most  High  caused  this 
noted  Book  to  come  down  an  Arabic  Koran  to  the 
Arabs,  for  their  tongue  and  speech  is  Arabic.  We, 
therefore,  revealed  this  Book  in  their  language  that 

155 


156    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

they  might  be  wise  and  fully  understand."  The 
Arabic  Koran  is  to-day  the  one  sacred  text-book  in 
all  Moslem  schools  in  Turkey,  Afghanistan,  Java, 
Sumatra,  Russia,  and  China,  as  well  as  in  those  lands 
where  Arabic  is  the  mother  tongue. 

Yet  to  three-fourths  of  the  Moslem  world  Arabic  is 
a  dead  language  ;  for  Islam  spread  even  more  rapidly 
than  did  the  language  of  the  Koran,  and  in  conse- 
quence the  Moslem  world  of  to-day  is  polyglot.  The 
chief  literary  languages  of  the  Moslem  world  next  to 
Arabic  are  Persian,  Turkish,  Urdu,  and  Bengali.  In 
all  of  these,  and  in  other  languages,  there  is  a  large 
Moslem  religious  literature — dogmatic,  mystic,  and 
controversial.  Yet  the  question  whether  the  Koran 
itself  might  be  translated  into  other  languages  has 
always  been  contested  by  the  orthodox  party.  It  is 
true  that  Mohammedans  have  themselves  prepared 
a  number  of  translations,  or  running  comments  on 
the  sacred  text,  as  interlinear  notes,  but  such  copies 
of  the  Koran  are  expensive  and  rare.  An  interesting 
correspondence  was  carried  on  in  the  columns  of  the 
Orient  and  Occident 1  a  few  years  ago  between  Sheikh 
Mohammed  Hasanein  El  Ghamrawy,  a  student  at 
Oxford,  and  the  editors,  in  regard  to  this  question. 
The  former  laid  down  the  chief  reasons  why  the 
Koran  was  not  translated  into  foreign  languages  by 
Moslems  in  the  earlier  days,  and,  secondly,  what  had 
been  the  motives  that  led  to  its  translation  into 
Persian,  Urdu,  and  Turkish  in  recent  times.  He 
speaks  of  the  translations  of  the  Koran  as  having 
been  adopted  rather  as  a  preventive  measure  than  to 
propagate  the  faith.  It  was  intended,  he  says,  "  to 
keep  the  religion  of  Islam  from  losing  its  hold  on 
countries  where  Arabic  is  little  known."  Islam  has 
1  Orient  and  Occident,  Cairo,  February  1907. 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    157 

never  had  its  Pentecostal  gift  of  tongues.  Before 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  gave  the  Great  Commission, 
the  Old  Testament  had  already  been  translated  into 
Greek,  and  to-day  the  list  of  the  Bible  Societies 
includes  versions  in  four  hundred  and  fif ty-six  tongues  : 
the  complete  Bible  in  a  hundred  and  twelve  languages, 
the  New  Testament  in  a  hundred  and  eleven  more, 
and  at  least  one  book  of  Scripture  in  two  hundred 
and  thirty-three  other  languages.1  This  list  includes 
every  language,  and  even  every  important  dialect 
spoken  in  the  Moslem  world.  (The  Bible,  in  contrast 
to  the  Koran,  has  this  unique  quality,  that  it  can  be 
rendered  into  all  the  languages  of  mankind  without 
losing  its  majesty,  beauty,  and  spiritual  power.  The 
secret  lies  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  Scriptures. 

"  The  Bible  belongs  to  those  elemental  things — like 
the  sky  and  the  wind  and  the  sea,  like  bread  and  wine, 
like  the  kisses  of  little  children  and  tears  shed  beside  the 
grave — which  can  never  grow  stale  or  obsolete  or  out  of 
date,  because  they  are  the  common  heritage  of  mankind. 
This  Book  goes  down  to  the  root  of  our  bitterest  needs, 
our  darkest  sorrows."  2 

The  difficulty  with  the  Koran  is  that  it  is  in  a  sense 
untranslatable.  To  imitate  its  rhyme  and  rhythm  is 
impossible.  Its  beauty  is  altogether  in  its  style,  and, 
therefore,  necessarily  artificial.  For  the  sake  of  the 
rhyme  unnecessary  repetitions  are  frequently  made, 
which  interrupt  the  sense  of  the  passage  and  some- 
times even  appear  ridiculous  in  a  translation.  "  The 

1  Translations  of  the  Bible,  by  Bernhard  Pick,  Ph.D.,  New 
York.  American  Bible  Society.  1913.  This  volume  contains  a 
carefully  compiled  bibliography  of  653  versions  of  the  Bible,  or  parts 
of  the  Bible,  which  have  been  made  since  the  invention  of  printing. 

3  Report  of  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  1913-14. 


158    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

language  of  the  Koran,"  says  Stanley  Lane-Poole, 
"  has  the  ring  of  poetry,  though  no  part  of  it  complies 
with  the  demands  of  Arab  metre.  The  sentences  are 
short  and  full  of  half-restrained  energy,  yet  with  a 
musical  cadence.  The  thought  is  often  only  half 
expressed  ;  one  feels  the  speaker  has  essayed  a  thing 
beyond  words,  and  has  suddenly  discovered  the  im- 
potence of  language  and  broken  off  with  the  sentence 
unfinished.  There  is  the  fascination  of  true  poetry 
about  these  earliest  surahs  ;  as  we  read  them  we 
understand  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Prophet's  followers, 
though  we  cannot  fully  realise  the  beauty  and  the 
power,  inasmuch  as  we  cannot  hear  them  hurled  forth 
with  Mohammed's  fiery  eloquence.  From  first  to 
last  the  Koran  is  essentially  a  book  to  be  heard, 
not  read."  And  elsewhere  the  same  author  says  : 
"  These  early  speeches  of  the  Koran  are  short  and 
impassioned.  They  are  pitched  too  high  to  be  long 
sustained.  We  feel  that  we  have  to  do  with  a  poet, 
as  well  as  a  preacher,  and  that  his  poetry  costs  him 
too  much  to  be  spun  out.  The  words  are  those  of 
a  man  whose  whole  heart  is  in  his  subject,  and  they 
carry  with  them  even  now  the  impression  of  the 
burning  vehemence  with  which  they  were  hurled 
forth."  * 

It  is  this  artificial  character  of  the  book  which  has 
baffled  the  skill  of  translators,  and  no  translation 
will  ever  satisfy  those  who  can  read  the  original ; 
for  did  not  Mohammed  himself  say,  "  I  love  the  Arabs 
for  three  reasons  :  because  I  am  an  Arabian,  because 
the  Koran  is  Arabic,  and  because  the  language  of  the 
people  of  Paradise  is  Arabic  too."  A  story  was 
recently  current  among  Moslems  at  Peshawar  that 
George  Sale  on  his  death-bed  declared  himself  a 

1  Cf.  Islam,  1903,  p.  1 6. 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    159 

Mohammedan,  and  asked  forgiveness  for  having 
put  forward  such  an  incorrect  translation  of  the 
Koran  as  he  had  made,  and  desired  that  all  copies 
should  be  burned !  (Perhaps  our  Indian  friends 
were  offended  by  his  statement  in  the  Preface  to  the 
Reader  :  "  The  Protestants  alone  are  able  to  attack 
the  Koran  with  success,  and  for  them  I  trust  Pro- 
vidence has  reserved  the  glory  of  its  overthrow.") 

In  attempting  to  give  as  complete  a  list  as  possible 
of  the  translations  of  the  Koran,  we  will  deal  first 
with  those  in  the  languages  of  Europe — in  nearly 
every  case  the  work  of  non-Moslems — and  then  with 
Oriental  versions  by  Moslems  and  missionaries. 

I. — TRANSLATIONS  INTO  THE  LANGUAGES 
OF  EUROPE 

The  first  translation  of  the  Koran  was  due  to  the 
missionary  spirit  of  Petrus  Venerabilis,  abbot  of 
Clugny  (died  1157  A.D.).  He  proposed  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Koran  into  Latin,  and  the  task  was  accom- 
plished by  an  Englishman,  Robert  of  Retina,  and  a 
German,  Hermann  of  Dalmatia.  Although  the  work 
was  completed  in  1143,  it  remained  hidden  for  nearly 
four  hundred  years,  till  it  was  published  at  Basle  in 
1543  by  Theodore  Bibliander.  This  version  was 
afterwards  rendered  into  Italian,  German,  and 
Dutch.  A  second  Latin  translation  of  the  Koran 
was  made  by  Father  Louis  Maracci  in  1698  and 
published  at  Padua,  together  with  the  original  text, 
explanatory  notes,  and  refutations.  Concerning  this 
translation  Sale  says  :  "  It  is,  generally  speaking, 
very  exact,  but  adheres  to  the  Arabic  idiom  too 
literally  to  be  easily  understood."  The  notes,  he 
adds,  are  valuable,  but  the  refutations  "  unsatis- 


160    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

factory  and  sometimes  impertinent."  Later  editions 
of  Bibliander's  text  appeared  in  1550,  and  1721 
(Leipzig).  An  Arabic-Latin  Koran  was  also  pub- 
lished at  Leipzig  in  1768  by  Justus  Fredericus  Froriep, 
and  another  at  Amsterdam  in  1646. 

Andrew  Du  Ryer,  who  had  been  French  Consul  in 
Egypt  and  had  a  considerable  knowledge  of  both  the 
Turkish  and  Arabic  languages,  first  translated  the 
Koran  into  French.  This  was  printed  at  Paris  in 
1647.  The  version  is,  however,  inaccurate,  and 
contains  frequent  transpositions,  omissions,  and  even 
additions  (Sale).  Later  and  better  French  transla- 
tions have  followed  :  by  Savary  in  1783,  and  Kasi- 
mirski  (Paris,  1st  edition  1840,  2nd  edition  1841, 
3rd  edition  1857).  Both  of  these  versions  have  been 
frequently  reprinted  in  popular  form.  Another 
French  version  is  that  by  G.  Pauthier  (Paris,  1852). 

As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  learn,  there  is  no 
translation  of  the  Koran  into  Danish  or  Norwegian. 
A  Swedish  translation,  however,  was  made  by  C.  J. 
Tornberg  in  1874,  but  is  said  to  be  very  inaccurate. 
J.  T.  Nordling  wrote  a  prize  essay  for  Upsala  Uni- 
versity on  the  Swedish  translation  in  1876. 

A  translation  of  one  Surah,  El  Mi'raj,  was  made 
into  Spanish  in  the  thirteenth  century  at  the  request 
of  Alphonso  x.,  by  his  physician,  Don  Ibrahim,  and 
a  French  rendering  of  this  translation  was  made  by 
Bonaventura  de  Seve.  I  have  not  heard  of  a  com- 
plete translation  into  Spanish,  nor  so  far  been  able  to 
trace  a  translation  of  the  Koran  into  Greek,  although 
the  Greeks  have  been  in  closest  touch  with  their 
Moslem  neighbours  for  many  centuries. 

Early  Hebrew  translations  are  not  unknown.  We 
learn  from  the  Jewish  Encyclopedia  that  fragments 
of  these  translations  are  found  in  a  Bodleian  MS. 


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A  PAGE  FROM  A  POLYGLOT  KORAN  :   ARABIC— PERSIAN— URDU 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    161 

(No.  1221) ;  in  a  bookseller's  list  a  volume  in  Hebrew 
is  mentioned  containing  the  Torah,  the  Targum,  and 
the  Koran.  A  translation  from  Latin  into  Hebrew 
was  made  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Jacob  b. 
Israel  ha  Levi,  Rabbi  of  Zante  (died  1634).  In 
modern  times  a  translation  was  made  into  Hebrew  by 
Hermann  Reckendorf,  and  printed  at  Leipzig  in  1857. 
The  first  German  translation  was  made  from  the 
Latin.  Other  translations  were  made  by  Schweigger 
from  the  Italian  version,  at  Niirnberg  in  1616,  and  by 
Frederick  Megerlin  (Frankfurt,  1772).  Sale's  English 
version  was  translated  into  German  by  Theo.  Arnold, 
and  published  at  Lemgo  (Germany)  in  1746.  The 
best  known  translations  in  German,  however,  are 
those  by  Boysen  (1773),  revised  and  corrected  by 
G.  Wahl  in  1828,  and  the  most  recent  one  by  Ullmann 
(1853),  which  has  passed  through  many  editions. 
But,  according  to  Noldeke,  none  of  the  German  trans- 
lations are  equal  to  those  which  we  have  in  English. 

The  first  Dutch  translation,  De  Arabische  Al- 
coran, was  from  Schweigger's  version,  and  was 
printed  at  Hamburg  in  1641.  A  later  one  was  made 
by  J.  H.  Glasemaker  from  Du  Ryer's  version  (and  is 
still  more  inaccurate),  and  was  published  at  Leyden 
in  1658,  and  six  later  editions.  The  copy  I  possess 
is  dated  1734,  "  Zijnde  de  zevende  en  laatste  druk." 
Another  translation  is  that  by  Dr.  Keyser,  Professor 
of  Mohammedan  Law  at  Delft,  published  at  Haarlem 
in  1860. 

A  Russian  version  appeared  at  St.  Petersburg 
(Petrograd)  in  1776. 

An    Italian    version,    "  Alcorano    di    Macometto, 

was  made  by  Andr.  Arrivabene  at  Venice  in  1547, 

but  is  very  incorrect,  as  it  is  from  the  Latin  version  of 

Robert   Retenensis   (Bibliander).     The   most   recent 

ii 


162    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

version  in  Italian  is  a  diglot  Koran  by  Aquilio  Fracassi, 
Professor  in  the  Royal  Technical  School  of  Milano 
(1914).  The  preface  gives  an  account  of  earlier  trans- 
lations, and  is  followed  by  a  brief  summary  of  the 
chapters  and  an  explanation  of  their  titles. 

As  early  as  the  fifteenth  century  Johannes 
Andreas,  a  native  of  Xativa  in  the  kingdom  of 
Valencia,  who  from  a  Mohammedan  doctor  became  a 
Christian  priest,  translated  not  only  the  Koran,  but 
also  its  glosses  and  the  six  books  of  the  Sunna,  from 
Arabic  into  the  Arragonian  tongue,  at  the  command 
of  Martin  Garcia,  bishop  of  Barcelona  and  Inquisitor 
of  Arragon.1  It  is  interesting  to  note  this  as  perhaps 
the  earliest  version  by  a  convert ;  we  doubt  Sale's 
statement  regarding  the  Sunna  ! 

Finally,  we  may  mention  a  polyglot  edition  of  the 
Koran  (Tetrapla),  prepared  by  the  savant  Andrea 
Acolutho,  of  Bernstadt,  printed  at  Berlin  in  1701,  in 
folio.  This  gives  the  Koran  in  Arabic,  Persian, 
Turkish,  and  Latin.  The  book  is  very  rare. 

Before  we  speak  of  the  various  English  versions, 
which  most  concern  our  readers,  mention  must 
yet  be  made  of  a  version  undertaken  in  Esperanto 
by  Khalid  Sheldrake,  of  which  specimens  have 
appeared  in  the  Islamic  Review.2  He  states  that 
Islam  and  Esperanto  have  a  common  ideal  in 
view  ;  that  each  strives  for  the  breaking  down  of 
the  "  unnatural  barriers  of  colour,  creed,  and  caste." 
We  give  below  the  translation  of  the  112th  Surah 
and  of  the  1st  in  Esperanto  : 

"  Diru  :  ke  Allaho  estas  la  Sola  Dio 
La  eterna  Dio 

Li  ne  havas  idojn,  nek  estas  ido 
Kaj  nenio  en  la  mondo  similas  al  Li." 

1  Sale's  Koran,  p.^vii.  a  Londoa,  July  1914- 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    163 

"  Pro  la  nomo  de  Dio  la  indulgema  and  malsevera, 
Laudo  estu  al  Dio,  la  majstro  de  la  mondoj 
Plena  de  kompato,  Rego  en  la  tago  de  la  jugo 
Al  vi  servu  ni,  kaj  al  vi  ni  pregu 
Konduku  nin  en  la  gusta  vojo, 
En  la  vojo  de  tiuj,  al  kiuj  vi  afablas 
Ne  de  tiuj  kiu  koleras  kontrau  via  volo 
Ne  de  tiuj  kiuj  eraras." 

The  first  English  Koran  was  Alexander  Ross'  trans- 
lation of  Du  Ryer's  French  version  (1648-1688).  He 
was  utterly  unacquainted  with  Arabic,  and  not  a 
thorough  French  scholar ;  therefore  his  translation 
is  faulty  in  the  extreme. 

Sale's  well-known  work  first  appeared  in  1734,  has 
passed  through  many  editions,  and  is  the  most  widely 
known  of  all  English  versions.  He  himself  wrote  : 
1  Though  I  have  freely  censured  the  former  trans- 
lations of  the  Koran,  I  would  not,  therefore,  be 
suspected  of  a  design  to  make  my  own  pass  as  free 
from  faults  ;  I  am  very  sensible  it  is  not ;  and  I  make 
no  doubt  that  the  few  who  are  able  to  discern  them, 
and  know  the  difficulty  of  the  undertaking,  will  give 
me  fair  quarter."  Whatever  faults  may  have  been 
found  in  Sale's  translation,  his  Preliminary  Discourse 
will  always  stand  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  study  of  Islam.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated into  Arabic  in  recent  years  under  the  title 
Makalat  jVl  Islam,  and  is  eagerly  read  by  Moslems 
themselves.  Sale's  translation  is  extremely  para- 
phrastic, but  the  fact  that  the  additional  matter  in 
italics  is,  in  nearly  every  case,  added  from  the  Com- 
mentary of  El-Beidhawi,  makes  it  the  more  valuable 
to  the  reader.  This  is  the  only  complete  English 
translation  with  explanatory  footnotes,  without  which 
the  Koran  is  scarcely  intelligible. 


164    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

In  1861  a  new  translation  was  made  by  the  Rev. 
J.  M.  Rod  well.  In  this  the  Surahs  or  chapters  are 
arranged  chronologically.  Dr.  Margoliouth  char- 
acterises this  rendering  as  one  of  the  best  yet  pro- 
duced. "  Not  the  least  among  its  recommendations 
is,  perhaps,  that  it  is  scholarly  without  being  pedantic 
— that  is  to  say,  that  it  aims  at  correctness  without 
sacrificing  the  right  effect  of  the  whole  to  over- 
insistence  on  small  details."  But  this  version  also 
has  many  inaccuracies,  especially  in  the  use  of  tenses 
and  particles. 

Edward  Henry  Palmer's  translation  appeared  in 
1880  in  the  series,  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.  He 
considers  Sale's  translation  scholarly,  his  notes 
invaluable,  but  says  that  the  style  of  the  language 
employed  "  differs  widely  from  the  nervous  energy 
and  rugged  simplicity  of  the  original."  Although 
Rodwell's  version  approaches  nearer  to  the  Arabic, 
Palmer  states  that  in  this  also  "  there  is  too  much 
assumption  of  the  literary  style."  In  his  own 
translation  he  has  attempted  to  render  into  English 
the  rude,  fierce  eloquence  of  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  and 
has  succeeded,  I  believe,  almost  to  the  same  degree 
as  Doughty  in  his  Arabia  Deserta.  Where  rugged 
or  commonplace  expressions  occur  in  the  Arabic, 
they  are  rendered  into  similar  English  ;  sometimes 
the  literal  rendering  may  even  shock  the  reader  as 
it  did  those  who  first  heard  the  message.  For 
example,  in  the  chapter  of  Abraham,  ver.  19,  Sale 
and  Rodwell  have  softened  down  the  inelegant  text, 
but  Palmer  gives  it  fearlessly  : 

"  Behind  such  a  one  is  hell,  and  he  shall  be  given  to 
drink  liquid  pus  !  He  shall  try  to  swallow  it,  but  cannot 
gulp  it  down." 


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A  PAGE  FROM  THE  ARABIC-JAVANESE  KORAN  PUBLISHED  AT  BATAVIA 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    165 

In  addition  to  these  the  Bibliotheca  Orientalis 
mentions  an  Arabic  Koran  lithographed  at  Serarn- 
pore  in  1833,  with  an  English  translation  on  the 
margin. 

We  also  have  two  English  translations  by  Moslems, 
not  to  speak  of  a  new  translation  which  is  promised 
by  the  editor  of  the  Islamic  Review.  In  1905  the 
Holy  Koran,  translated  by  Dr.  Mohammed  Abdul 
Hakim  Khan,  with  short  notes,  appeared  from  the 
press.  This  was  printed  in  England.  In  1911  Ash- 
gar  &  Company  at  Allahabad  published  the  Arabic 
text  with  English  translation,  arranged  chrono- 
logically, by  Mirza  Abu'l  Fazl.  In  the  admirable 
abstract  of  the  contents  of  the  Koran,  the  author 
introduces  his  readers  to  the  principles  of  textual 
criticism.  The  chronological  order  adopted  differs 
from  that  of  Muir,  Rodwell,  and  Jalal-ud-Din,  al- 
though most  nearly  approaching  the  last-named. 
The  English  translation  is  vigorous,  independent,  and 
although  sometimes  crude  and  too  literal,  will  perhaps 
on  this  very  account  prove  useful  to  students  of  the 
Arabic  text.  The  following  are  examples  of  such 
literalisms  which  offend  good  taste,  but  which  give 
the  Arabic  original :  "  For  you  is  a  lesson  in  the 
cattle  ;  we  give  you  to  drink  of  what  is  in  their 
bellies  "  ;  "  We  will  brand  him  on  the  snout  "  ;  or, 
where  the  angels  came  to  Abraham  :  "  And  there 
came  before  them  his  wife  with  exclamations,  and 
she  beat  her  face  and  said  :  '  Old  and  barren  me  !  ' 
But  this  is  not  a  blemish  in  the  translation,  unless  it 
be  a  blemish  in  the  original,  and  the  translation  of 
some  of  the  earlier  Surahs,  such  as  The  Night,  The 
Sun,  and  The  Pen,  are  wonderfully  well  done.  There 
are  instances,  however,  where  the  author  has  shown 
his  bias  by  a  translation  which  is  inaccurate,  and, 


166    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

therefore,  misleading.  In  the  translation  of  two 
parallel  verses,  one  referring  to  the  death  of  John 
the  Baptist  and  the  other  to  that  of  Jesus  Christ 
(Surah  xix.  15  and  34),  the  same  Arabic  verb  and 
tense  is  in  the  one  case  translated  by  the  past  and 
in  the  other  by  the  future,  to  uphold  the  Moslem 
theory  that  Jesus  Christ  did  not  die  on  the  cross, 
but  will  die  after  His  second  return  :  "  And  peace 
upon  him  the  day  he  was  born,  and  the  day  he  died, 
and  the  day  when  he  shall  be  raised  up  alive." 
"  And  peace  upon  me  the  day  I  was  born,  and  the 
day  /  shall  die,  and  the  day  I  shall  be  raised  up  alive." 

To  sum  up  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  English  trans- 
lations, the  reader  has  the  choice  of  no  less  than  eight 
versions  of  the  Mohammedan  Bible,  four  of  them  by 
Moslems. 

The  latest  and  most  elaborate  attempt  at  an  English 
translation  is  that  by  the  "  Anjuman  -  i  -  Taraqqi 
Islam  "  at  Qadian,  of  which  specimen  pages  have 
just  appeared  from  the  Addison  Press,  Madras.  The 
Arabic  text  in  beautiful  script  appears  at  the  top  of 
the  quarto  page,  followed  by  careful  transliteration 
and  a  translation.  The  work  apparently  is  being 
done  by  the  collaboration  of  educated  Moslems  of 
the  Qadiana  sect  in  the  Punjab.  The  commentary 
in  English  takes  up  more  than  three-fourths  of  the 
page,  and  is  thoroughly  modern  in  its  attitude  ;  but 
it  is  marred  by  its  hopelessly  sectarian  character. 
The  preface  to  the  work  throws  much  light  on  the 
whole  question  of  Koran  translation,  as  viewed  by 
Moslems  of  the  liberal  school : 

"  It  goes  without  saying  that  an  English  translation  of 
the  Holy  Quran  with  copious  explanatory  notes  and  ex- 
haustive comments  is  one  of  the  crying  needs  of  the  time. 
This  is  an  age  of  religious  research.  Everybody  is  desirous 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    167 

of  having  the  first-rate  information  about  the  great 
religions  of  the  world.  And  the  need  for  such  information 
is  greater  in  the  case  of  Islam  than  in  the  case  of  any 
other  religion.  No  other  religion  has  been  so  cruelly 
misrepresented  as  that  of  the  Holy  Quran.  .  .  .  Besides 
answering  the  objections  of  the  hostile  critics  we  intend 
to  present  to  the  readers  of  all  creeds  and  nationalities 
a  true  picture  of  Islam,  which  alone  of  all  religions  can 
solve  the  greatest  problems  of  the  age  by  its  universality, 
grandeur,  simplicity,  and  practicality. 

"It  is  with  these  objects  in  view  that  we  have  under- 
taken this  translation  of  the  Holy  Quran.  And  nothing 
could  serve  this  purpose  better  than  such  a  reliable  trans- 
lation with  necessary  comments  adapted  to  convey  the 
true  sense  of  the  Holy  Book  and  to  remove  the  mis- 
understandings under  which  many  of  the  people  are 
labouring,  thanks  to  the  misrepresentations  of  the 
Christian  writers  on  Islam.  Indeed,  there  are  already 
a  number  of  English  translations,  but  they  are  mostly 
by  Christian  writers,  who  besides  being  insufficiently 
acquainted  with  Arabic,  could  not  totally  free  themselves 
from  religious  bias,  and  many  of  their  notes  and  pre- 
liminary discourses  are  calculated  to  mislead  the  reader 
rather  than  enlighten  him." 

For  the  comparison  of  four  of  these  English  trans- 
lations of  the  Koran  we  give  below  in  parallel  columns 
translations  of  the  Chapter  of  the  Forenoon  (XCIIL), 
according  to  the  versions  of  Sale,  Palmer,  Rodwell, 
and  that  of  the  Indian  Moslem,  Abu'l  Fazl. 


168    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 


SALE. 


PALMER. 


RODWELL.         ABU'L  FAZL. 


By  the  bright- 

By the   fore- 

By the  noon- 

By the  noonday 

ness       of       the 

noon  !    And  the 

day  brightness  ! 

brightness.  And 

morning,  and  by 

night    when    it 

And      by      the 

by     the    night, 

the  night  when 

darkens  !      Thy 

night    when    it 

when  it  darkens. 

it  groweth  dark  : 

Lord    has     not 

darkeneth  !  Thy 

Thy  Lord  hath 

thy   Lord   hath 

forsaken     thee.. 

Lord   hath   not 

not        forsaken 

not        forsaken 

nor  hated  thee  ; 

forsaken     thee, 

thee,  neither  is 

thee,       neither 

and   surely   the 

neither  hath  he 

he      displeased. 

doth    he     hate 

hereafter  is  bet- 

been displeased. 

And  surely  the 

thee.  Verily  the 

ter  for  thee  than 

And   surely  the 

Hereafter    shall 

life  to  come  shall 

the  former  ;  and 

Future  shall  be 

be  better  for  thee 

be     better     for 

in  the  end  thy 

better  for  thee 

than  the  former  ; 

thee    than    this 

Lord    will    give 

than    the  Past, 

And  in  the  end 

present  life  :  and 

thee,  and  thou 

and  in  the  end 

thy    Lord    will 

thy   Lord   shall 

shalt     be    well 

shall   thy   Lord 

give  to  thee,  and 

give  thee  a  re- 

pleased !       Did 

be  bounteous  to 

thou    shalt    be 

ward  wherewith 

He  not  find  thee 

thee    and    thou 

well        pleased. 

thou    shalt    be 

an  orphan,  and 

be  satisfied.  Did 

Did  He  not  find 

well  pleased.  Did 

give    thee  shel- 

he not  find  thee 

thee  an  orphan, 

He  not  find  thee 

ter  ?     and    find 

an   orphan  and 

and    give    thee 

an  orphan,  and 

thee  erring,  and 

gave      thee      a 

a  home  ?     And 

hath  he  not  ta- 

fuide thee  ?  and 

home  ?         And 

found  the  [sic] 

ken  care  of  thee  ? 

nd    thee    poor 

found  thee  err- 

erring,          and 

And  did  he  not 

with   a   family, 

ing  and  guided 

guided       thee  ? 

find   thee   wan- 

and        nourish 

thee.  And  found 

And  found  thee 

dering  in  error, 

thee  ?  But  as  for 

thee  needy  and 

needy,  and  en- 

and hath  he  not 

the  orphan  op- 

enriched    thee. 

riched        thee  ? 

guided  thee  into 

press  him  not  ; 

As  to    the    or- 

Then, as  for  the 

the  truth  ?  And 

and   as  for  the 

phan,  therefore, 

orphan,  oppress 

did  he  not  find 

beggar        drive 

wrong  him  not  ; 

not  him  ;  and  as 

thee  needy,  and 

him  not  away  ; 

And  as  to  him 

for     him     who 

hath      he     not 

and   as   for  the 

that   asketh    of 

asks,  chide  him 

enriched    thee  ? 

favour    of    thy 

thee,  chide  him 

not  away.    And 

Wherefore     op- 

Lord,  discourse 

not  away  ;  And 

as       for        the 

press    not    the 

thereof. 

as       for        the 

favour    of    thy 

orphan  ;  neither 

favours   of   thy 

Lord,      tell      it 

repulse  the  beg- 

Lord, tell  them 

abroad. 

gar  ;  but  declare 

abroad. 

the  goodness  of 

thy  Lord. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  chief  charm  of  the 
Koran,  from  a  literary  standpoint,  is  its  musical 
jingle  and  cadence.  This  an  English  translation 
cannot  reproduce.  Yet  attempts  have  been  made 
by  Richard  Burton  and  others  to  acquaint  English 
readers  with  this  element  of  poetry  in  Mohammed's 


A  PAGE  FROM  REV.  W.  GOLDSACK'S  BENGALI  TRANSLATION  OF  THE  KORAN, 

WITH  NOTES 

Published  by  the  C.L.S.I. 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    169 

revelation.  The  following  version  of  the  Surah 
already  given,  appeared  in  an  article  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review  for  July  1866,  and  although  it  may  not  equal 
the  Arabic,  it  is,  to  say  the  least,  more  interesting 
than  any  of  the  ordinary  prose  versions  : 

44 1  swear  by  the  splendour  of  light 
And  by  the  silence  of  night 
That  the  Lord  shall  never  forsake  thee 
Nor  in  His  hatred  take  thee ; 
Truly  for  thee  shall  be  winning 
Better  than  all  beginning. 
Soon    shall   the   Lord    console  thee,  grief   no  longer 

control  thee, 

And  fear  no  longer  cajole  thee. 
Thou  went  an  orphan  boy,  yet  the  Lord  found  room 

for  thy  head, 
When  thy  feet  went  astray,  were  they  not  to  the  right 

path  led  ? 
Did  He  not  find  thee   poor,  yet   riches   around  thee 

spread  ? 

Then  on  the  orphan  boy,  let  thy  proud  foot  never  tread, 
And  never  turn  away  the  beggar  who  asks  for  bread, 
But  of  the  Lord's  bounty  ever  let  praise  be  sung  and 

said." 


II. — VERSIONS  IN  ORIENTAL  LANGUAGES  l 

One  of  the  earliest  versions  of  the  Koran  for  the 
use  of  Moslems  was  the  translation  made  into  Urdu 
by  the  learned  Sheikh,  Abd-ul-Kadir  Ibn-i-Shah 
Wali  Ullah,  of  Delhi,  in  1790.  This  has  appeared  in 
several  editions,  lithographed,  with  the  Urdu  text 
interlinear  with  the  original.2  An  Arabic-Persian 
interlinear  in  two  volumes  was  printed  at  Calcutta 

1  Cf.  Jean  Gay,  Bibliographic  des  Ouvrages  relatifs  d  I'Afrique  et 
a    I' Arabic,     Paris,    1875;     Brunet,     Manuel    du    Libraire    (art. 
"Mahomet") ;  J.  Th.  Zenker,  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,  Leipzig,  1861. 

2  An  edition  in  two  volumes  was  printed  at  Hugly  in  1248  (1829). 


170    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

in  1831  ;  Brunet  also  mentions  a  lithographed  Persian 
interlinear  translation  (Isphan,  n.d.).  The  latest 
edition  is  a  polyglot  Koran  in  folio,  lithographed 
in  two  colours  at  Delhi  by  the  Farooki  Press,  1315 
A.H.,  and  entitled  Koran  Majid,  Terjumat  Thalatha. 
The  introduction  is  in  Urdu,  and  the  interlinear 
text  gives  first  the  Arabic,  followed  by  a  Persian 
translation,  an  Urdu  free  translation,  and  an  Urdu 
literal  translation.  The  Persian  translation  is  by 
Shah  Rafi'-ud-Din.  In  addition  to  the  text  a  running 
commentary  is  given  on  the  margin,  both  in  Urdu 
and  in  Persian.  In  Persian  we  have  other  editions 
of  the  Koran  with  explanatory  notes  on  the  text, 
or  attempts  at  literal  versions.  A  scholarly  trans- 
lation of  the  Koran  into  Urdu  was  also  made  by  the 
late  Rev.  Dr.  Imad-ud-Din,  of  Amritsar,  India.  This 
was  the  first  translation  to  be  published  in  Roman  - 
Urdu  characters,  and  through  the  Christian  Mission 
press  at  Allahabad  it  has  been  widely  circulated 
throughout  India. 

Rev.  Dr.  Ahmad  Shah,  S.P.G.  missionary  at  Hamir- 
pur,  U.P.,  has  recently  given  us  the  Koran  in  Hindi 
translation  from  the  original  Arabic.  The  language 
is  said  to  be  idiomatic,  and  the  paragraphs  are 
arranged  according  to  the  thought  of  the  text. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  Malay  version 
of  Beidhawi's  Commentary  on  the  Koran  contains 
an  interlinear  translation,  sentence  by  sentence, 
with  the  Arabic  text.  Two  or  three  editions  of  this 
commentary  have  been  published,  and  it  is  sold 
throughout  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 

According  to  Hughes,  a  translation  has  also  been 
made  into  Pushtu,  and  another  writer  speaks  of  one 
in  Gujerati.  I  have  not  been  able  to  secure  informa- 
tion, however,  in  regard  to  these  versions. 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    171 

From  the  Terjuman  (quoted  in  the  Revue  du 
Monde  Musulman,  iv.  634)  we  learn  that :  "  Les 
Musulmans  d'Adjari,  aux  environs  de  Batoum,  et 
des  regions  avoisinantes,  ne  parlent  et  ne  com- 
prennent  que  la  langue  grouse  [sic].  Pour  faciliter 
leur  instruction  religieuse,  le  Goran  a  iti  traduit 
recemment  dans  leur  langue  ;  1'auteur  de  cette  tra- 
duction  se  nomme  Mir  Yanichouyli."  One  would 
like  to  know  more  accurately  concerning  this  version 
for  so  small  a  population. 

Some  of  these  translations,  however,  especially  the 
earlier  ones,  are  not,  correctly  speaking,  translations 
of  the  text ;  rather  they  consist  of  a  commentary 
in  the  vernacular  on  the  Arabic  text,  which  some- 
times in  transliterated.  A  Chinese  Commentary 
on  the  Koran  is  an  example.  In  the  Revue  du  Monde 
Musulman  (vol.  iv.  p.  540)  a  full  account  of  such  a 
commentary  is  given  by  M.  F.  Farjenel  and  M.  L. 
Bouvat.  The  work  is  in  octavo,  but  gives  neither 
date  nor  author's  name.  It  is  entitled  King  han 
Tchou-kiai  heueting  (The  Sacred  Book  explained  in 
Chinese,  and  clearly  divided  into  Sections). 

"  The  Chinese  phonetic  rendering,  in  this  part  of  the 
book,  is  indicated  after  the  Arabic  text,  and  the  Chinese 
explanation  follows.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  Arabic 
text  itself  is  not  translated,  the  Faithful  doubtless  being 
supposed  to  understand  it.  The  notes  in  Chinese  which 
accompany  each  Arabic  phrase  form  an  annotated 
explanation  of  the  prayer  or  of  the  text,  written  in 
colloquial  language.  All  the  rest,  after  the  Fatiha,  is 
composed  entirely  of  verses  of  the  Koran,  likewise  trans- 
lated into  the  language  of  the  common  people." 

To  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  what  such  a  trans- 
lation means,  we  give  below  the  comment  on  the 


172    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

words  "  King  of  the  Day  of  Judgment,"  in  the  first 

Surah : 

Maliki  yaumi'd-din.     (In  Arabic  character.) 
Ma  li  kee  yao  minn  ting.     (In  Chinese  character.) 

"  This  expression  has  twelve  Arabic  characters.  With 
the  thirty  preceding  characters,  this  makes  forty-two. 
On  the  basis  of  these  forty-two  characters  Allah  has 
created  forty-two  kinds  of  diseases  of  the  human  heart. 
To  every  man  who,  during  prayer,  recites  these  words 
with  true  devotion,  Allah  will  grant  the  cure  of  these 
forty-two  moral  illnesses." 

The  word  "  Amin  "  (Chinese  :  A  mi  nai)  is  thus 
explained  : 

"  This  word  has  four  sacred  characters  which  designate 
four  saints  :  Alif  stands  for  Adam  ;  Mim  for  Mohammed, 
the  apostle  of  God  ;  Ya  for  Yahya  (John) ;  and  Nun  for 
Noah.  Those  who  recite  these  characters  accurately 
will  receive  the  honours  and  dignity  pertaining  to  these 
four  saints,  on  the  Day  of  the  Resurrection." 

A  translation  of  the  Koran  in  Javanese  appeared  in 
1913  from  the  Semarang-Drukkery  en  Boekhandel, 
Batavia.  It  is  issued  in  parts  of  about  a  hundred 
pages.  The  print  and  text  are  exceptionally  good  (see 
facsimile) ;  the  footnotes  in  Javanese  are  textual  and 
not  explanatory.  This  translation  was  made  by  Mr. 
Ngarpah,  who  calls  himself  "  Servant  of  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey."  He  was  once  a  Roman  Catholic  convert, 
and  then  turned  back  to  Islam.  The  Javanese 
students  at  El  Azhar  were  greatly  interested  in  this 
translation  when  I  showed  it  to  them.  An  earlier 
translation  in  Javanese  character  is  mentioned  by 
Brill. 


tf/:    *• 


A  SPECIMEN  PAGE  OF  CHINESE  KORAN  COMMENTARY 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    173 

In  1908  the  Rev.  William  Goldsack,  a  missionary  of 
the  Australian  Baptist  Society,  undertook  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Koran  into  Bengali.  It  was  a  bold  but 
strategic  venture  on  literary  lines,  and  has  already 
had  great  effect  among  intelligent  Moslems.  The 
Koran,  printed  in  this  fashion  (see  facsimile),  with 
Christian  comment  and  the  explanation  of  difficult 
passages,  can  well  be  made  a  schoolmaster  to  lead 
Moslems  to  Christ.  One  may  hope  that  this  method 
will  find  imitation  in  other  mission  fields  and  other 
languages.  Efforts  in  this  direction  are  sure  to  meet 
with  opposition,  as  was  the  case  with  Turkish  versions. 

In  the  days  of  Abdul  Hamid  a  translation  of  the 
Koran  into  Turkish  would  have  been  an  impossibility, 
owing  to  Moslem  prejudice,  yet  during  his  reign 
copies  of  the  Arabic  Koran,  with  Turkish  commentary 
in  the  margin,  were  freely  published.  A  beautiful 
edition  of  such  a  Koran  was  printed  at  the  Bokharia 
Press,  Constantinople,  A.H.  1320.  After  the  de- 
claration of  the  Constitution,  the  translation  of  the 
Koran  into  Turkish  was  begun  simultaneously  by 
different  writers.  It  aroused  not  a  little  stir  in 
Moslem  circles,  and  the  undertaking  was  opposed  by 
those  of  the  old  school.  The  earliest  translation 
that  appeared  was  entitled  Terjumat  el  Koran, 
by  Ibrahim  Hilmi,  and  was  printed  at  Stamboul 
about  two  years  ago.  Another  translation  appeared 
in  the  Turkish  bi-monthly,  Islam  Majmtfasi,  edited 
by  Halim  Thabit.  The  translator  signed  himself 
Kh.  N.  So  far  only  thirteen  numbers  of  this  journal 
have  appeared.  The  Director  of  the  Khedival 
Library  at  Cairo,  who  showed  me  the  magazine,  ex- 
pressed his  opinion  that  the  enterprise  had  been 
stopped  by  the  Turkish  Government,  and  feared 
that  all  copies  of  the  paper  so  far  issued  would  be 


174    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

confiscated  and  destroyed.  Ahmed  Effendi  Aghaieff, 
in  the  Jeune  Turc,  advocates  these  translations  as  a 
necessary  religious  reform,  a  sign  of  the  times,  and 
as  the  only  way  to  reach  the  masses  with  the  truths  of 
Islam.  He  wrote  : 

"  We  must  begin  this  (translation)  at  once,  and  show 
the  people  that  it  is  possible  to  reach  the  authentic 
foundations  of  our  religion.  First  in  rank  of  these  is  the 
Koran.  Till  now  the  ordinary  Turk  read  this,  committed 
it  to  memory,  said  his  prayers  and  had  his  communion 
with  God,  absolutely  without  understanding  the  sense  and 
content  of  what  he  read  or  prayed.  Naturally  his  readings 
and  prayers  made  no  such  impression  on  his  heart  and 
soul  as  we  should  expect  from  the  reading  of  a  holy  book 
and  the  recitation  of  a  prayer.  Reading  and  prayer  were 
both  mechanical ;  here  was  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
the  impotence  of  religion  as  an  educational  force,  and  this 
obstacle  must  be  removed. 

"It  is  this  thought  that  has  led  to  the  translation  of 
the  Koran  into  Turkish ;  and  the  remarkable  thing,  and 
that  which  shows  how  ripe  the  time  is  for  this  enterprise, 
is  that  the  translation  has  been  begun  in  quarters  utterly 
at  variance  with  each  other  in  their  tendencies.  An 
entirely  new  religious  era  is  opening  in  Turkey.  We  can 
already  foresee  that  it  will  be  big  with  beneficent  results 
for  the  country ;  and  the  country  is  so  ready  for  such 
work  that  the  protests  against  the  translation  have  been 
remarkably  feeble  and  have  not  even  attracted  general 
attention." 

The  hope  expressed  in  this  editorial,  however,  was 
not  realised.  Neither  of  these  translations  have  so 
far  been  completed,  the  Sheikh-ul-Islam  himself 
having  forbidden  all  translations  of  the  sacred  Arabic 
text  into  Turkish.  Even  an  appeal  to  the  Grand 
Vizier,  we  are  told,  met  with  no  response.  There  is 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    175 

no  doubt,  however,  that  after  the  war  those  who 
have  begun  this  translation  will  complete  it.  The 
spirit  in  which  it  was  undertaken  is  well  indicated  by 
Ibrahim  Hilmi's  preface,  from  which  we  translate 
two  paragraphs  as  they  appeared  in  the  Aegyptische 
Nachrichten  (Cairo)  in  a  review  of  the  work  : 

"  To  confer  a  favour  upon  my  countrymen,  I  have 
decided  to  translate  the  noble  contents  of  the  Holy 
Koran  into  simple  and  smooth  Turkish.  It  is  true  that 
earlier  Turkish  Commentaries  on  the  Koran,  or  Korans 
with  explanatory  notes,  have  appeared,  but  all  these 
works  were  published  in  obscure  and  classical  style,  and 
did  not  give  the  meaning  of  the  text  clearly,  so  our 
Moslem  brethren  received  little  benefit  from  them.  In 
my  youth  I  learned  the  whole  Koran  by  heart  and  became 
a  Hafiz.  Even  now  I  can  recite  the  Koran  with  the  right 
intonations,  but  nevertheless  I  did  not  understand  hardly 
a  single  phrase ;  and  this  is  the  case  with  hundreds  of 
thousands  among  the  Moslems.  They  have  spent  their 
youth  in  learning  the  proper  recital  of  the  Koran,  have 
even  learned  it  by  heart,  but  of  the  meaning  of  the  Holy 
Book  they  understand  nothing.  The  foundations  of  our 
faith  are  unknown  to  them. 

"  Truly  the  Koran  did  not  descend  from  heaven  merely 
as  a  masterpiece  of  beautiful  Arabic  eloquence.  Non- 
Arabic  speaking  nations  have  rightly  expressed  the 
desire  to  know  what  the  book  contains.  Everyone 
cannot  learn  sufficient  Arabic  to  understand  the  Koran, 
nor  have  they  time  to  wade  through  twenty  volumes  of 
Commentaries.  Since  I  have  for  a  long  time  laboured 
in  my  native  country  with  patriotic  zeal  for  its  intellectual 
and  'social  reformation,  I  have  now  the  special  wish 
to  give  a  version  of  the  Koran  in  the  language  of  the 
people.  The  translators  have  done  their  best  to  help 
all  the  readers,  especially  the  youth  at  school,  to  a  right 
understanding  of  the  sacred  text,  and  have,  therefore, 


176    TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN 

used  simple  language.  The  reader  will  not  misjudge  my 
religious  object  and  my  good  intention  in  this  work. 
Even  when  the  Turk  reads  his  Koran  in  Turkish  he  will 
not  abandon  the  use  of  the  original  text  and  the  com- 
mentaries. May  God  bless  my  undertaking  and  this  new 
translation." 


To  sum  up  the  result  of  our  investigation.  The 
Koran  has  been  translated  into  twelve  European 
languages,  and,  not  counting  the  polyglot  editions, 
we  have  in  these  languages  thirty-four  versions  (no 
less  than  eight  in  the  English  language  alone).  In 
Oriental  languages  we  have  been  able  to  learn  of 
some  ten  versions,  and  in  the  case  of  one  or  two  of 
these  the  information  seems  doubtful.  When  we 
remember  that  this  work  of  translation  has,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  been  the  work  of  Western  scholars, 
Orientalists,  and  missionaries,  the  contrast  between 
the  Arabic  Koran  and  the  Bible,  the  Book  for  all 
nations,  is  strikingly  evident.  And  from  the  mis- 
sionary standpoint  we  have  nothing  to  fear  from 
modern  Koran  translations  ;  rather  may  we  not  hope 
that  the  contrast  between  the  Bible  and  the  Koran 
will  be  evident  to  all  readers  when  they  compare 
them  in  their  vernacular  ?  As  long  as  orthodox 
Islam,  however,  retains  its  grip  on  the  strategic 
centres  of  the  Moslem  world,  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  the  translations  of  the  Koran  made  for 
Moslems  by  their  own  leaders  will  have  any  wide 
circulation.  At  Constantinople  and  Cairo  the  leaders 
still  seem  bound  to  discourage  any  translation  of 
their  Sacred  Book.1  We  are  told  that  at  Lahore  a 

1  Cf .  Al  Manar,  vol.  xvii.  part  2,  p.  160  (against  a  Turkish 
version)  ;  and  xvii.  part  10,  p.  794  (protesting  against  a  new 
English  version  by  Kamal-ud-Din,  editor  of  the  Islamic  Review). 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  KORAN    17T 

well-known  Moslem  lawyer  was  recently  speaking  to 
his  co-religionists  in  the  Punjab  on  matters  connected 
with  Islam,  and  protested  against  this  mistaken 
policy.  "  The  reason  why  Christians  succeed  is 
because  wherever  they  go  they  have  the  Bible  and 
say  their  prayers  in  their  mother-tongue  ;  whereas 
we  have  wrapped  up  our  religion  in  an  Arabic  dress. 
We  should  give  the  people  the  Koran  and  let  them 
say  their  prayers  in  their  own  language."  The  only 
answer  he  received  was,  "  Thou  art  thyself  an  un- 
believer to  say  such  things." 


CHAPTER   X 

THE  DYING  FORCES  OF  ISLAM 


179 


"  WE  need  only  refer  to  Hali,  the  first  and  foremost 
in  the  shining  heaven  of  song,  to  see  the  picture  of 
Mohammedan  society  painted  in  its  naked,  hideous  de- 
formity. His  Musaddus  is  a  doleful  tale  of  the  vice 
and  immorality,  the  selfishness,  self-seeking,  and  hypo- 
crisy which  are  corrupting  Mohammedan  society  through 
and  through.  It  is,  if  I  may  say  so,  the  epitaph,  the 
funeral  oration  over  our  community  in  India.  His  verses 
express  the  authentic  cry  of  the  human  heart — sad, 
weary,  depressed,  at  things  as  they  are." — Essays,  S. 
KHUDA  BUKHSH  (an  Indian  Moslem). 

"  MAN  is  the  absolute  master  and  woman  the  slave. 
She  is  the  object  of  his  sensual  pleasures,  a  toy,  as  it  were, 
with  which  he  plays,  whenever  and  however  he  pleases. 
Knowledge  is  his ;  ignorance  is  hers.  The  firmament 
and  the  lights  are  his  ;  darkness  and  the  dungeon  are 
hers.  His  is  to  command ;  hers  is  to  blindly  obey. 
His  is  everything  that  is,  and  she  is  an  insignificant  part 
of  that  everything." — KASIM  AMEEN  BEY  (a  Moslem 
Jurist  in  Egypt). 


180 


CHAPTER   X 

THE  DYING   FORCES  OF  ISLAM 

A  YOUNG  sheikh,  Mohammed  el  'Attar,  for  some 
years  a  teacher  in  El  Azhar  University  and  a 
voluminous  writer  of  pamphlets,  has  recently  issued 
a  small  booklet  under  the  title,  Where  is  Islam  ? — An 
Essay  setting  forth  the  Present  Condition  of  Moslems, 
Socially9  Intellectually,  and  Morally.  In  this  pam- 
phlet of  only  thirty-two  pages  we  have  a  cry  from 
the  heart  of  a  Moslem  of  the  old  school,  despairing 
of  reform  and  watching  with  regret  the  decaying 
forces  at  work  in  Islam.  It  is  not  a  book  of  con- 
troversy against  Christians,  but  is  addressed  to 
Moslems  by  one  of  themselves.  It  is  a  call  for  reform, 
if  reform  is  yet  possible.  It  is  a  cry  of  despair,  for 
in  the  words  of  the  author,  "  There  is  no  true  and 
living  Islam  left  in  the  world."  We  translate  ver- 
batim some  of  the  most  striking  portions  of  this 
treatise,  which  lays  bare  the  very  heart  of  Islam  and 
shows  us  what  goes  on  in  the  minds  of  the  leaders  in 
El  Azhar  itself,  and  in  Cairo,  the  intellectual  capital 
of  Islam. 

"  Praise  be  to  God  and  thanksgiving,  with  the  highest 
praise  and  most  hearty  thanks.  I  have  not  written  this 
little  book  to  criticise  my  brother  Moslems  or  to  wound 
their  consciences  by  recording  the  disgraceful  practices 
which  have  crept  into  our  religion,  but  I  have  prepared 

181 


182     THE  DYING  FORCES  OF  ISLAM 

it  as  a  homily  to  stir  up  the  hearts  of  the  faithful,  and 
my  trust  is  in  God  .  .  .  What  heart  is  there,  O  Most 
Glorious  God,  that  is  not  terrified  at  the  present  condi- 
tion of  Islam,  and  what  eye  is  there  that  does  not  weep 
for  it  ?  I  searched  for  Islam  in  Mecca,  the  most  honour- 
able city,  where  some  of  the  verses  of  the  Koran  came 
down  as  a  revelation  to  men  and  a  clear  guidance,  but  I 
saw  nothing  there  save  corruption  and  error  and  shame 
and  woe.  I  found  there  wine  and  adultery  and  wicked- 
ness and  what-not.  Obscenity  has  multiplied  and  all 
propriety  ceased  in  the  land  of  Mecca,  the  mother  of 
Islam.  O  Land  of  Mecca,  thou  art  too  pure  that  thou 
shouldst  be  thus  defiled  !  " 

He  then  goes  on  to  show  that  most  of  those  who  go 
on  pilgrimage  do  not  go  in  the  right  spirit,  but  many 
of  them  spend  money  which  they  have  wrung  from  the 
poor  by  usury  and  expect  thus  to  gain  merit  with 
God. 

"  Yet  I  was  not  so  sorry  for  these  deluded  people  as 
I  was  for  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca  itself;  those  who 
dwell  for  ever  near  the  House  of  God,  but  pay  no  atten- 
tion to  the  warnings  of  God,  living  on  in  their  savagery 
and  barbaric  customs,  ignorant  as  cattle,  and  further 
away  from  the  true  road. 

"  I  searched  for  Islam  in  Medina,  the  Illustrious,  but 
found  only  miserable  people  complaining  of  nakedness 
and  hunger.  So  I  stood  and  spoke  to  them  in  kindness 
and  without  anger :  '  O  ye  despairing,  hungry  and 
miserable  Moslems  !  I  weep  for  your  blood  instead  of 
tears,  for  by  God  my  heart  is  filled  with  sadness  at  your 
condition.  Seek  death  if  you  are  freemen  ;  if  not,  you 
are  in  an  evil  case. 

"  I  sought  for  Islam  under  the  government  of  the 
Sublime  Porte  and  the  Ottoman  race,  and  I  found  only 
divisions  and  parties  with  names  and  degrees  without 
number,  and  no  doubt  the  names  and  the  degrees  are 


THE  DYING  FORCES  OF  ISLAM     183 

only  degrees  of  vanity  and  lying.  Nor  is  the  Lord 
ignorant  of  what  they  do.  God  has  made  their  career 
a  mockery  to  those  that  mock  and  a  laughing-stock  to 
those  that  deride.  By  God,  if  I  were  not  an  Arab,  I 
would  flee  away  from  your  religion  to  escape  from  these 
people  whose  souls  have  become  inhuman  and  whose 
faces  have  become  ugly  and  knavish.  And  is  not  God 
mighty  and  the  Avenger  ?  This  is  the  company  which 
have  manifested  hatred  and  enmity  the  one  to  the  other, 
so  that  there  is  no  longer  peace  between  the  father  and 
the  son,  nor  between  brothers,  nor  between  rulers  and 
the  ruled.  They  are  of  those  without  understanding." 

Here  follows  a  lament  for  the  Turkish  defeat,  the 
loss  of  Adrianople,  the  state  of  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment, and  the  destruction  of  the  Califate  under 
Ottoman  rule. 

"  I  searched  for  Islam  in  Europe,  and  I  returned  to 
my  native  land  smiling  with  pleasure  at  what  I  saw  there. 
.  .  .  There  I  found  men  who  loved  their  fellows  and  loved 
goodness  for  its  own  sake.  There  I  saw  people  who  were 
kind  to  their  poor — and  how  few  were  the  hungry  and 
the  miserable.  Peace  be  to  you,  O  Europe,  as  long  as 
the  sun  shines. 

"  I  sought  for  Islam  in  India,  but  no  sooner  had  I 
reached  Madras  than  my  heart  was  disturbed  and  over- 
whelmed with  sorrow ;  and  for  what  reason  do  you 
suppose  ?  As  soon  as  I  came  to  this  land  of  unbelievers 
I  picked  up  their  books  translated  into  the  Tamil  language, 
in  which  the  Moslems  recorded  the  life  of  the  Seyyid 
Abdul  Kadir  el  Jilani,  whom  they  regard  as  a  god  to  be 
worshipped.  Would  that  they  only  mentioned  him  as  a 
prophet  or  disciple,  but  they  give  him  the  attributes  of 
deity.  For  example,  they  call  him  Lord  of  heaven  and 
earth  ;  the  One  who  helps  and  hinders,  the  One  who  has 
the  control  of  the  universe ;  the  One  who  knows  the 


184    THE  DYING  FORCES  OF  ISLAM 

secrets  of  the  creation ;  the  One  who  raises  the  dead 
and  heals  the  blind  and  the  lepers  ;  the  One  who  forgives 
sins  and  takes  away  calamity,  etc.  etc.  When  they 
visit  places  built  in  his  memory  they  say,  O  Thou  most 
excellent  fountain  of  eternity,  O  Lord  Abdul  Kadir  el 
Jilani.  .  .  .  What  sane  man  would  thus  take  titles  and 
attributes  which  are  only  proper  in  the  case  of  God,  and 
apply  them  to  one  of  His  creatures  ?  Woe  be  to  my 
heart  at  such  a  state  of  Islam.  By  God,  death  is  better 
than  life  for  such  Moslems,  and  they  deserve  punishment 
in  this  world  and  the  world  to  come. 

"  I  sought  for  Islam  in  the  Azhar  University,  built 
upon  injustice  and  hatred  and  tyranny  and  oppression, 
and  I  found  its  people  consisting  of  two  parties  :  leaders 
and  teachers ;  and  disciples.  As  for  the  leaders  and 
teachers,  they  are  the  ones  who  manifest  enmity  and 
hatred  and  oppression,  and  there  is  none  among  them 
with  justice  or  equity.  They  make  a  great  show  of  Islam 
before  the  common  people,  and  God  knows  how  much 
hypocrisy  there  is  in  many  of  them." 

He  then  speaks  of  the  faults  of  the  teachers,  address- 
ing them  with  his  counsel,  saying  that  he  is  one  of 
their  number,  but  that  does  not  excuse  him  from 
speaking  frankly  of  the  conditions  that  now  obtain 
among  the  learned.  The  pupils  receive  still  stronger 
admonition,  and  at  the  end  of  the  paragraph  he  says 
there  is  no  true  and  living  Islam  left. 

" 1  sought  for  Islam  in  the  mosques,  and  I  saw  that 
the  most  of  those  who  prayed  there  stole  the  sandals 
of  their  co-worshippers,  and  I  said  in  my  heart,  Where 
are  the  Moslems  to-day  ?  Yea,  where  is  Islam  ? 

"  I  sought  for  Islam  in  the  school  of  the  teachers 
Dar  el  'Aloom."  (He  refers  to  the  new  school  for  the 
training  of  Moslem  missionaries  in  Old  Cairo,  and  goes 
on  to  indicate  that  this  school  for  the  training  of  pro- 


THE  DYING  FORCES  OF  ISLAM   185 

pagandists  spends  its  energies  in  disputes  regarding 
grammatical  niceties  and  quibbles  about  Arabic  syntax.) 
"  So  I  said,  Leave  them  alone  with  their  Arabic,  and  I 
departed  laughing,  and  they  were  laughing  too. 

"  I  sought  for  Islam  in  the  law  school,  and  I  saw  there 
a  sheikh  of  the  most  learned  of  his  kind  lecturing  on 
flqh.  I  said  to  him,  What  is  your  judgment  regarding 
the  washing  of  the  head  before  prayer  ?  Must  it  be  done 
wholly  or  only  in  part  ?  And  then  I  was  amazed  to  see 
the  teacher  blush  in  his  ignorance,  unable  to  answer ; 
and  so  I  turned  away  from  him,  saying,  Here  is  a  company 
of  those  who  teach,  without  knowledge,  and  profess  to 
understand,  without  understanding. 

"  I  sought  for  Islam  in  the  dwellings  of  the  rich,  but 
I  found  wine  upon  their  tables,  and  I  heard  them  singing 
songs  in  praise  of  the  joys  of  this  life.  .  .  . 

"  I  sought  for  Islam  in  the  hearts  of  the  Sufis  and  the 
followers  of  the  '  Way '  (mystics),  and  I  hoped  against 
hope  that  I  would  find  it  there.  But  here  also  it  was 
lost  and  in  decay.  I  found  them  taking  hashish  and 
drugs,  and  all  their  supposed  worship  is  full  of  deceit  and 
fraud.  Nor  is  God  ignorant  of  what  they  do." 

The  writer  closes  his  long  indictment  by  saying  : 

"  I  searched  for  Islam  throughout  the  whole  world,  from 
east  to  west  and  from  north  to  south ;  nor  did  I  find  it. 
Where  shall  I  find  it  ?  Shall  I  find  it  among  those  who 
are  not  Moslems  ?  " 

He  then  lapses  into  poetry,  apostrophising  the 
European  culture  of  Cairo  as  a  centre  of  worldliness 
and  sin, — and  in  this  judgment  we  all  agree.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  praises  the  West  for  its  progress 
in  art  and  literature  ;  and  says  (p.  21)  that  although 
Islam  is  dying  and  among  Moslems  there  is  nothing 
but  backbiting  and  slander,  truth,  kindness,  and 


186     THE  DYING  FORCES  OF  ISLAM 

covenants  still  hold  among  Christians.  Some  of 
the  evils  of  which  he  accuses  his  co-religionists  are 
so  gross  as  to  be  untranslatable,  and  he  is  specially 
grieved  at  the  corruption  of  the  Arabic  tongue  by 
the  introduction  of  foreign  words. 

The  last  two  pages  of  the  pamphlet  are  addressed 
to  his  critics.  He  knows  his  writing  will  not  be 
reviewed  with  favour,  as  the  exposure  of  hypocrites 
always  means  their  hatred,  but  he  asserts  that  the 
high-minded  among  them  know  that  he  is  speaking 
the  truth ;  and  that,  therefore,  those  who  are 
sincere  will  accept  his  warning.  A  humorous  touch 
is  given  by  the  author's  request  that  El  Azhar 
kindly  repay  him  £150  sterling,  which  he  spent 
there  in  vain  !  He  also  says  that  as  there  will  be 
few  favourable  reviews  of  his  treatise,  he  furnishes 
the  reader  with  a  review  of  it  by  a  late  Sheikh  of 
El  Azhar,  Mohammed  Abdu,  saying  that  this  reached 
him  by  wireless  telegraphy  from  Paradise !  Mo- 
hammed Abdu  in  his  telegram  corroborates  the 
judgment  of  the  author  and  praises  him  for  his 
audacity. 

It  appears  that  this  is  only  the  first  part  of  this 
terrible  arraignment,  and  that  the  second  will  shortly 
come  from  the  press.  When  a  consulting  physician 
has  carefully  diagnosed  a  patient  who  is  suspected 
to  be  suffering  from  the  deadly  germ  of  tuberculosis, 
and  the  irrevocable  verdict  has  been  given  that  the 
disease  has  advanced  so  far  as  to  be  incurable,  one 
may  say  that  he  is  a  dying  man.  The  forces  of 
death  are  already  at  work,  and  it  is  only  a  matter 
of  time  when  they  will  do  their  worst.  Or  when  the 
species  of  fungi  known  as  dry-rot  begins  to  penetrate 
oak  timber,  the  process  of  destruction  cannot  be  easily 
arrested.  If  Mohammed  el  'Attar  is  not  a  mere 


THE  DYING  FORCES  OF  ISLAM     187 

pessimist,  but,  as  we  believe,  a  true  prophet  from 
the  midst  of  his  brethren,  then  Islam  is  already 
doomed.  Its  vital  forces  have  been  sapped,  and 
moral  and  spiritual  collapse  are  as  inevitable  as  was 
the  case  in  the  Moslem  world  of  politics. 


CHAPTER  XI 

ARABIC  LITERATURE  AND  ITS 
EVANGELISATION 


189 


*'  THIS,  I  beheld,  or  dreamed  it  in  a  dream  : 
There  spread  a  cloud  of  dust  along  a  plain ; 
And  underneath  the  cloud,  or  in  it,  raged 
A  furious  battle,  and  men  yelled,  and  swords 
Shocked  upon  swords  and  shields.     A  prince's  banner 
Wavered,  then  staggered  backward,  hemmed  by  foes. 
A  craven  hung  along  the  battle's  edge, 
And  thought,  '  Had  I  a  sword  of  keener  steel, 
That  blue  blade  that  the  King's  son  bears,  but  this 
Blunt  thing  ! '     He  snapt  and  flung  it  from  his  hand, 
And  lowering  crept  away  and  left  the  field. 
Then  came  the  King's  son,  wounded,  sore  bestead, 
And  weaponless,  and  saw  the  broken  sword, 
Hilt  buried  in  the  dry  and  trodden  sand, 
And  ran  and  snatched  it,  and  with  battle-shout 
Lifted  afresh,  he  hewed  his  enemy  down, 
And  saved  a  great  cause  that  heroic  day." 

E.  R.  SILL. 


100 


CHAPTER   XI 

ARABIC  LITERATURE  AND  ITS 
EVANGELISATION 

ONE  of  the  Arab  philosophers,  at  once  a  zoologist, 
a  philosopher,  and  biographer  of  the  Arabian  prophet, 
whose  name  was  Ed  Damiry,  and  who  lived  about 
four  or  five  hundred  years  after  Mohammed's  death, 
said  that  "  Verily  the  wisdom  of  God  came  down  on 
three — on  the  hand  of  the  Chinese,  on  the  brain  of 
the  Franks,  and  on  the  tongue  of  the  Arabs." 

The  present  awakening  of  China  will  doubtless 
prove  that  not  only  in  the  past,  but  also  in  the  present, 
the  Chinese  are  above  all  nations  clever  in  handicraft. 
It  is  interesting  to  believe  that  the  Arabs,  even  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  realised  the  inventive  genius  of  the 
West ;  and  no  one  who  has  ever  studied  the  Arabic 
language,  or  even  their  literature  as  far  as  it  has 
been  translated,  can  doubt  that  the  language  of  the 
Arabs,  which  they  call  "  the  language  of  the  angels," 
is,  of  all  living  languages,  perhaps,  the  most  delicate 
in  structure,  immense  in  vocabulary,  and  of  great 
possibility  for  the  expression  of  every  form  of  thought. 
No  one  doubts  the  importance  of  this  living  speech. 

I.  Extent,  spread,  and  world-wide  influence  of  the 
Arabic  language. — The  Arabic  language  became  the 
chief  vehicle  for  carrying  on  and  carrying  outside  the 
bounds  of  Arabia  the  Moslem  religion.  The  Bible 

191 


192  ARABIC  LITERATURE 

tells  us,  "  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the 
Word  was  with  God,"  and  that  "  the  Word  became 
flesh  and  dwelt  among  us."  In  another  sense  the 
word  of  Mohammed,  incorporated  in  his  book,  has 
gone  on  the  wings  of  the  wind  with  Arab  propa- 
gandism,  until  to-day  the  Koran  is  perhaps  the  most 
widely  read  of  any  book  in  the  world  save  the  Bible. 

I  think  it  is  correct  to  say,  as  was  mentioned  be- 
fore on  page  103  with  reference  to  a  typewriter  firm, 
that  the  Arabic  character  is  used  more  widely  than 
any  other  character  used  by  the  human  race.  The 
Chinese  character  is  used  by  more  people,  vastly 
more,  but  the  Arabic  character  has  spread,  through 
the  Mohammedan  religion,  over  much  wider  area, 
until  in  every  part  of  the  great  world  of  Islam  those 
who  know  the  Arabic  character  can  at  least  read  the 
signs  of  the  street  or  the  tickets  in  the  railway  trains. 
To  begin  with,  the  whole  of  North  Africa  has  adopted 
the  Arabic  character.  From  Rio  de  Oro  and  Morocco, 
through  Algiers,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  Egypt,  in  all  the  day 
schools,  higher  schools,  on  the  street,  and  wherever 
there  are  people  who  read  and  write,  they  use  the 
same  character  that  is  used  in  the  Koran.  The 
Arabic  character  has  also  been  carried  through  a 
large  part  of  Central  Africa  by  the  Hausas,  and 
through  a  large  part  of  Eastern  Africa  by  the  Swa- 
hilis  and  the  Arabs  of  Zanzibar.  Long  before  Living- 
stone crossed  the  Dark  Continent  the  Arabs  had 
already  named  the  chief  lands  of  Africa,  visited  the 
great  lakes,  and  discovered  the  greater  part  of  the 
continent.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Far  Eastern 
world.  In  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Malaysia  the 
books  used  by  the  Moslems,  numbering  35,000,000 
souls,  are  mostly  in  the  Arabic  tongue  or  in  the 
Arabic  script.  The  same  is  true  of  the  great  strip  of 


AND  ITS  EVANGELISATION      193 

country  from  far  Western  China,  through  Northern 
India,  Afghanistan,  Eastern  Turkestan,  the  whole  of 
Persia,  Turkey  in  Asia,  and  Arabia.  Islam  has 
carried  its  alphabet,  the  sacred  alphabet  of  the 
Koran,  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Moslem 
world. 

The  Arabic  speech  has  even  extended  through  its 
literature  and  Moslem  emigrants  to  the  New  World. 
In  South  America  there  are  nearly  160,000  Moham- 
medans, while  in  Brazil  alone  there  are  seven  Arabic 
newspapers. 

The  Mohammedan  religion  has  also  carried  its 
grammar,  its  vocabulary,  through  a  greater  part  of 
the  Oriental  and  Occidental  world,  Even  in  the 
English  language  we  have  no  less  than  threescore 
words  that  are  Arabic,  which  came  by  way  of  the 
Crusaders  or  through  Spain  into  the  English  diction- 
ary and  linger  there.  Every  time  we  buy  a  magazine, 
use  a  sofa,  or  study  algebra,  we  pay  tribute  to  the 
Arabic  tongue,  because  all  these  are  Arabic  words. 
There  are  fifty  other  words  just  as  common  which 
could  be  mentioned.  But  most  of  all,  the  Arabic 
language  is  bound  up  with  the  religion  of  Islam.  To- 
day there  are  no  less  than  forty  or  fifty  million  people 
whose  spoken  tongue  is  the  language  of  Arabic,  and 
over  200,000,000  people  who  pray  no  prayer  to  God, 
who  have  no  religious  expression  for  the  thoughts 
of  their  soul,  save  as  winged  with  the  language  of 
Mohammed. 

The  cry  of  the  muezzin  is  the  challenge  of  Islam 
to  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  all  these  lands, 
from  Canton  in  the  extreme  east,  and  through 
Western  China,  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  as 
far  west  as  Morocco  or  Sierra  Leone,  as  far  south  as 
Cape  Town,  and  as  far  north  as  Tobolsk,  Siberia, 
13 


194  ARABIC  LITERATURE 

you  may  hear  every  day  the  call  to  prayer  in  Arabic, 
and  the  prayer  from  Mohammed's  book,  "  In  the  name 
of  God,  the  merciful,  the  compassionate  !  " 

Nor  has  the  Arabic  language  ceased  to  spread 
through  the  world.  Its  use  is  extending  not  only  in 
Africa,  but  even  in  China,  and  we  may  speak  of  a 
revival  of  Arabic  in  nearly  every  Moslem  land.  It  is 
in  the  deepest  sense  of  the  word  a  living  speech. 
What  stronger  proof  could  we  have  for  this  than 
the  activity  of  the  Mohammedan  press  in  centres 
like  Cairo,  Beirut,  and  Constantinople  ? 

II.  Need  for  the  Evangelisation  of  Arabic. — On  the 
other  hand,  Arabic  literature  has,  by  the  very  fact  of 
its  being  Moslem,  become  to-day  the  greatest  and 
strongest  retrograde  force  for  civilisation  and  social 
progress  in  the  world. 

It  has  been  said  that  "  the  book,  the  religion, 
and  the  sword  of  Islam  have  done  more  to  retard  the 
progress  of  civilisation  than  any  other  forces  in  the 
world."  Islam  has  lost  its  sword.  The  Moslem  world 
is  under  Christian  government  or  western  influence 
practically  everywhere.  But  the  power  of  Islam 
still  remains  in  its  book,  in  the  propagating  force  of 
this  religion  through  its  literature.  I  believe  that 
the  old  Arabic  literature  is  both  socially  and  morally 
and  spiritually  to-day  the  greatest  retrograde  force 
in  the  world. 

For  the  springs  of  this  literature  are  not  waters 
of  life  that  make  everything  blossom  and  bloom 
with  their  flow.  The  water  that  goes  forth  from 
the  springs  of  Arabic  literature  and  of  Islam  is  bitter 
water,  a  Dead  Sea  of  thought.  It  is,  alas !  true 
that  the  desert  is  the  garden  of  Allah,  but  the 
desert  is  not  the  garden  of  Jehovah.  Where  Jehovah 


AND  ITS  EVANGELISATION      195 

walks  is  Paradise,  and  where  Allah  walks  there  is 
the  desert. 

Arabic  Moslem  literature  is  anti-Christian,  impure, 
full  of  intolerance  and  fanaticism  toward  western 
ideas,  and  wholly  inadequate  to  meet  the  intellectual 
and  moral  needs  of  humanity. 

Take,  for  example,  the  social  and  political  effect  of 
Arabic  literature.  The  literature  of  Islam  is  out  and 
out,  of  course,  Mohammedan,  and  is  based  on  the 
Arabic  mediaeval  conception  of  social  life  and  progress. 
I  think  it  was  Lord  Cromer  who  said  in  his  book  on 
Egypt  that  "  reformed  Islam  is  Islam  no  longer," 
because  the  real  Islam  is  based  on  three  principles — 
the  principle  of  intolerance,  the  principle  of  the  degra- 
dation of  womanhood,  and  therefore  the  ruin  of  the 
home  life,  and  the  principle  of  the  unchangeableness  of 
civil  law.  Now,  these  three  principles  are  absolutely 
antagonistic  to  the  march  of  modern  civilisation. 

In  regard  to  womanhood,  there  are  a  small  number 
of  Mohammedans  who  advocate  monogamy  and 
deprecate  polygamy,  but  there  is  not  a  single  Moslem 
in  Cairo  or  Calcutta  who  can  write  a  book  in  favour 
of  the  rights  of  womanhood  without  directly  indict- 
ing the  life  of  the  prophet  and  attacking  the  Koran. 
So  these  two  things  are  incompatible,  and  it  is  simply 
impossible  to  reform  Islam  without  impugning 
Mohammed  himself  and  his  sacred  institutions. 
Again,  Mohammedan  literature  stands  for  intolerance. 
You  can  find  intolerance  in  nearly  every  Moslem  book 
you  pick  up,  whether  story-book  or  poem  or  philo- 
sophy or  religion.  It  is  woven  into  their  literature 
and  life. 

Mohammedan  literature  is  also  morally  unfit  to 
elevate  the  world.  Let  us  take  two  or  three  examples 
familiar  to  us  all,  The  Arabic  tales  of  The  Thousand 


196  ARABIC  LITERATURE 

and  One  Nights  is  used  among  us  as  a  book  for 
children.  It  is  a  book  of  rather  interesting  stories 
in  the  expurgated  form  in  which  we  know  it,  but  as 
it  circulates  in  the  Moslem  world  it  corrupts  morals, 
degrades  home  life,  and  the  better  class  of  Moslems  to- 
day would  not  like  to  be  seen  reading  the  book.  Take 
the  greatest  book  in  the  Arabic  world,  the  Koran 
itself.  "  The  Koran,"  as  a  Moslem  in  Morocco  said, 
"  contains  beautiful  moral  precepts,  but  they  are  hard 
to  follow.  When  I  read  the  New  Testament  some  one 
seems  to  be  drawing  me  to  Himself."  There  is  the 
greatest  difference  in  the  world  between  the  Arabic 
Bible  and  the  Arabic  Koran,  the  Arabs  themselves 
being  witnesses.  If  placed  side  by  side  with  the 
Bible,  Mohammed's  book  will  show  immediately  its 
inferiority.  I  remember  an  Arab,  who  came  to  one 
of  our  missionaries  in  Arabia  and  said,  "  I  love  your 
Bible,  but,"  he  said,  "  the  Arabic  Bible  is  not  as 
poetic,  its  form  is  not  as  elevating,  its  eloquence  is 
not  as  great  as  is  the  eloquence  and  the  poetry  of 
Mohammed's  book,  the  Koran."  And  the  missionary, 
quick  as  a  flash,  said,  "  When  the  caravan  is  crossing 
the  desert  and  the  travellers  are  dying  for  thirst,  do 
they  ask  for  rose-water  ?  "  It  is  God's  Word  alone 
that  satisfies  the  thirsty  soul. 

And  there  is  a  sad  dearth  of  literature  for  children. 
The  Koran  is  not  a  book  for  children  in  any  sense  of 
the  word.  Its  style  is  obscure  even  to  adult  Arabs, 
and  except  for  a  few  Old  Testament  stories  and  some 
references  to  Jesus  Christ,  told  in  garbled  form,  there 
is  nothing  in  it  to  attract  children.  Pictures  and 
music,  although  increasingly  winning  their  way 
among  Moslem  children,  must  do  so  over  against  re- 
ligious prohibition  according  to  the  letter  of  the  law. 
The  contents  of  a  children's  jprimer  on  religion,  by 


AND  ITS  EVANGELISATION      197 

Sheikh  Mohammed  Amin  al  Kurdi,  which  has  had  an 
enormous  circulation  in  Egypt,  Malaysia,  and  North 
Africa,  will  indicate  what  a  Moslem  child  is  taught ; 
it  is  typical  of  this  sort  of  literature.  In  the  intro- 
duction the  author  says  that  his  book  is  intended  for 
primary  schools  and  for  boys  and  girls  at  home.  The 
first  part  of  the  book  defines  God,  His  unity  and 
His  attributes,  speaks  of  Mohammed,  the  doctrine  of 
angels  and  the  Koran,  and  says  that  the  Gospel  now 
in  the  hands  of  Christians  has  been  utterly  corrupted 
and  is  untrustworthy.  The  second  part  of  the  book 
might  well  be  entitled,  "  What  a  boy  and  girl  ought 
not  to  know."  No  further  proof  surely  is  needed  that 
this  literature  needs  to  be  purified  and  superseded. 

III.  What  is  being  done  to  meet  this  need? — The 
Beirut  Press,  established  by  an' American  mission,  has 
had  a  splendid  record  of  achievement.  Besides  the 
Arabic  Bible  prepared  for  Moslem  readers  all  over 
the  world,  scores  of  books,  scientific,  moral,  and 
religious,  have  been  published  by  them,  and  have 
had  a  wide  circulation.  But  this  press  has  always 
been  handicapped  because  of  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment. Even  under  the  new  Constitution,  they  are 
unable  to  print  freely  the  kind  of  literature  needed 
for  the  present  opportunity. 

The  Nile  Mission  press  was  established  to  co- 
operate with  the  Mission  press  at  Beirut,  and  to 
supplement  its  work  of  Bible  printing  and  extend  it 
on  a  much  larger  scale,  especially  by  tracts  and  leaflets 
suited  for  Mohammedans. 

We  must  capture  the  Arabic  literature  for  Jesus 
Christ  and  use  it  to  carry  His  message  everywhere, 
as  Mohammed  once  used  it  to  carry  his  religion. 
This  is  not  impossible. 


198  ARABIC  LITERATURE 

We  have  illustrations  in  the  story  of  missions. 
When  Ulfilas,  the  great  missionary,  came  to  Northern 
Europe  and  put  the  Bible  in  the  language  of  the 
people,  he  captured  it  for  Jesus  Christ.  When 
Luther  put  the  Bible  into  the  Old  German  tongue, 
the  tongue  of  the  common  people  which  men  despised, 
he  created  the  German  language  ;  and  when  Tyndale 
and  Coverdale  gave  the  Bible  to  England  they  not 
only  perpetuated  the  faith  of  the  Bible,  but  made 
it  penetrate  and  permeate  the  English  language. 
And  so  I  believe  that  when  Dr.  Vandyke  and  Eli 
Smith  ended  their  work  of  faith  and  labour  of  love 
and  patience  of  hope,  translating  page  by  page  and 
verse  by  verse  the  Bible  into  the  Arabic  tongue — 
when  the  completed  Bible  came  from  the  press  in 
Beirut,  they  ushered  in  an  era  far  more  importance 
than  any  dynasty  or  any  change  in  governments  in 
the  Moslem  world,  because  they  gave  to  fifty  million 
people  the  Word  of  God  in  a  matchless  transla- 
tion. There  is  a  proverb  current  at  Damascus,  or 
which  used  to  be  current  there,  given  by  Hartmann 
in  an  article  he  wrote  on  Islam  and  the  Arabic 
speech,  "  Verily,  the  Arabic  language  will  never  be 
Christianised." 

This  proverb  is  a  challenge,  and  in  this  task  we 
have  had  the  splendid  co-operation  of  the  New  York 
Committee.  For  this  purpose  the  Nile  Mission  press 
employs  its  colporteurs  and  sent  out  in  1914-15, 
mostly  by  direct  sales,  103,262  books  and  tracts  to 
every  part  of  the  Moslem  world,  making  Cairo  a  distri- 
buting centre  for  the  Gospel  message  in  all  Moslem 
lands. 

The  Nile  Mission  press  stands  at  the  great  strategic 
centre  of  Islam,  Cairo,  "  the  victorious."  If  you  go 
into  its  narrow  streets,  among  the  bookshop  crowds, 


AND  ITS  EVANGELISATION      199 

you  have  only  to  stand  there  for  a  few  hours  to  see 
that  the  real  capital  of  Islam  is  Cairo.  Here  are  men 
from  Nigeria,  Morocco,  Java,  Singapore,  Hunan  in 
West  China,  from  Mecca,  Medina,  Teheran,  Stamboul, 
from  Bokhara,  from  every  part  of  the  Moslem  world. 
What  do  they  come  for  ?  To  lay  in  a  stock  of  Moham- 
medan literature  and  to  carry  it  to  the  utmost  confines 
of  the  Moslem  world. 

Could  you  find  a  better  centre,  a  more  efficient 
method,  and  a  more  strategic  time  for  this  work 
than  God  has  given  us  to-day  ?  Carey's  watchword 
should  be  ours,  "  Attempt  great  things  for  God ; 
expect  great  things  from  God." 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME  IN  THE 
MOSLEM  WORLD 


201 


"  THE  passing  of  the  whole  of  North  Africa  under 
European  government ;  the  rapid  extension  of  settled 
administration,  of  modern  education  and  trade ;  the  in- 
evitable breakdown  of  the  Moslem  defences  as  a  conse- 
quence ;  the  favourable  change  in  the  attitude  of  govern- 
ments ;  and  the  decided  and  increasing  success  of  our 
work  in  all  its  branches  as  revealed  in  the  reports  and 
the  statistics — all  emphasize  .  .  .  that  here,  now,  is  the 
acceptable  time  !  " — Report,  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission, 
1913. 

"  I  AM  more  than  ever  convinced  that  the  fulness  of 
time  has  come  for  the  Mohammedan  people." — A  Mis- 
sionary in  Central  China. 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME  IN  THE 
MOSLEM  WORLD 

THE  greatest  missionary  problem  next  to  that  of 
the  evangelisation  of  China,  with  its  four  hundred 
millions,  is  that  of  the  Moslem  world.  In  Africa, 
the  destiny  of  a  continent  is  at  stake;  the  grave 
peril  of  Moslem  aggression  and  the  supreme  urgency 
for  missionary  occupation  cannot  be  overstated. 

And  yet  Africa  contains  less  than  one-fourth  of 
the  total  Moslem  world  population.  In  India  alone 
there  are  twenty  million  more  Moslems  than  in  all 
Africa.  In  Asia,  Islam  had  its  birth,  and  to  the  great 
pilgrim  centres  of  Western  Asia,  Mecca,  Medina, 
and  Kerbela,  hundreds  of  thousands  come  every 
year  from  every  part  of  the  Moslem  world.  A 
quadrennial  convention  is  not  more  truly  repre- 
sentative of  the  North  American  colleges  and  uni- 
versities than  the  annual  pilgrimage  at  Mecca  is  of 
Islam.  Five  outstanding  facts  voice  the  present- 
day  call  of  the  Moslem  world  to  Christendom ;  in 
five  particulars  we  may  truly  say  that  the  fulness  of 
the  time  has  now  come  for  the  evangelisation  of  these 
millions — the  fulness  of  the  time  for  the  Son  of  God 
to  redeem  them  that  are  still  under  the  law  and 
bondage  of  Islam,  that  they  might  receive  the  adoption 


204          THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

of  sons — the  fulness  of  time  to  send  forth  His  Spirit 
in  their  hearts,  crying,  "  Abba,  Father." 

I.  For  the  first  time  in  history  the  whole  of  Christen- 
dom faces  the  whole  Moslem  world  in  its  unity. — The 
Crusades  were  the  conflict  of  European  Christianity 
against  the  Turks  in  Western  Asia  ;  but  the  crusaders, 
and  the  Turks  alike,  were  ignorant  of  the  spread  of 
Islam  hi  Malaysia  and  Africa,  while  they  vainly 
fought  with  carnal  weapons  for  the  possession  of 
Jerusalem.  From  the  days  of  Henry  Martyn  until 
recent  years,  the  Moslem  world  was  neglected  in 
missionary  councils  and  in  the  missionary  enterprise. 
To-day  this  problem  holds  a  foremost  place.  Not 
only  at  the  special  conferences  of  Cairo  and  Lucknow, 
but  at  the  Edinburgh  World  Conference,  the  unity 
of  this  problem  and  its  urgency  were  unmistakably 
emphasised  and  laid  as  a  common  responsibility 
upon  the  Churches  of  Christendom. 

The  secular  press  and  colonial  governments  are 
now  fully  conscious  that  Islam  is  a  world  power,  and 
are  compelled  by  present-day  events  and  move- 
ments to  give  serious  study  to  the  subject.  During 
the  past  five  years  more  books  on  Islam  have  appeared 
in  Europe  than  in  any  previous  decade.  The  New 
Encyclopedia  of  Islam,  Prince  Caetani's  exhaustive 
studies  on  the  early  history  of  Islam,  in  twelve  octavo 
volumes,  the  French,  German,  Russian,  and  English 
monthly  or  quarterly  reviews  of  the  world  of  Islam- 
all  these  are  indications  that  there  is  a  new  conscious- 
ness of  the  grave  importance  of  this  subject  and  its 
relation  to  the  progress  of  humanity. 

And  the  unity  of  the  problem  is  felt  by  Moslems 
themselves  as  never   before.     Their  press  in  Cairo, 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD         205 

Calcutta,  and  Constantinople  records,  with  the 
rapidity  and  the  sensitiveness  (sometimes  without 
the  accuracy)  of  a  seismograph,  every  tremor  or 
earthquake  of  disaster  in  the  whole  Moslem 
world. 

"  The  Balkan  War,"  said  the  Comrade  of  Calcutta, 
"  has  laid  bare  before  the  Mussulmans  the  great 
secular  problems  of  their  faith.  They  have  begun 
to  perceive,  for  the  first  time  after  many  centuries, 
with  perfect  clearness  that  Islam  is  not  a  mere 
terminological  expression  representing  diverse  com- 
munities with  lives  apart,  but  a  living  force  of  spiritual 
and  social  cohesion  binding  all  Moslems  in  an  indis- 
soluble unity  of  hope,  purpose,  duty,  and  endeavour. 
The  brotherhood  of  Islam  has  ever  been  a  funda- 
mental basis  of  its  creed,  but  the  Indian  Moslems  had 
never  felt  its  vital  strength  as  keenly  as  they  feel  it 
to-day.  The  sufferings  of  the  parts  have  revived 
in  the  whole  its  sense  of  organic  unity." 

This  sense  of  organic  unity  in  distress — these 
disappointed  hopes  of  Pan-Islamism — are  they  not  a 
challenge  to  our  deepest  sympathies  and  a  call  for 
the  outpouring  of  love  and  service  to  the  brotherhood 
of  Islam  ? 

When  Major  Finley,  the  Governor  of  the  Moro 
Islands,  had  an  audience  with  the  Sheikh  ul  Islam 
at  Constantinople  last  year,  the  Moslems  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  offered  public  prayer  for  him  that 
their  petition  might  be  accepted  by  the  caliph  of  all 
true  believers.  The  leading  Moslem  magazine  in 
Cairo,  El-Manar,  has  subscribers  in  Morocco  and 
South  Africa,  in  China  and  Australia,  in  Russia  and 
Java.  On  the  island  of  Mauritius  a  weekly  Pan- 
Islamic  paper  is  published  in  French  and  English, 


206          THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

and  the  Moslem  press  of  India  reviews  every  im- 
portant missionary  publication  of  Europe  and 
America.  They  brought  out  serially  an  "  expur- 
gated "  edition  of  my  Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  Islam,  and 
reviewed  at  length  Dr.  Herrick's  Christian  and 
Moslem.  All  secrecy,  all  clandestine  approach,  all 
subterfuge  are  things  of  the  past.  For  better  or 
for  worse  the  Moslem  world  faces  the  Christian 
world,  and  Christendom  faces  Islam  in  the  open. 
We  know — and  they  know  that  we  know.  They 
know — and  we  ought  to  know  that  they  know. 

II.  We  know  the  true  proportions  of  Islam. — The 
Moslem  world  is  nearer  to  us  and  is  better  known 
than  it  ever  was  known  before.  "  The  shrinkage  of 
the  earth,"  said  Lord  Curzon  at  the  annual  meeting 
of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  "  and  the  control 
of  the  forces  of  nature  by  the  organised  skill  of  man 
has  not  since  the  days  of  the  Tudors  made  a  greater 
advance  in  a  single  decade  than  during  the  last  ten 
years."  The  enormous  expansion  of  foreign  trade 
with  Egypt,  East  Africa,  and  the  lands  of  the  Nearer 
East  has  brought  them  to  our  very  doors.  Russian 
railways  from  the  north  and  British  from  the  south 
meet  on  the  border  of  Afghanistan.  Pilgrims  to 
Mecca  now  take  tickets  from  Damascus  to  Medina 
on  the  Hedjaz  Railway,  linked  up  with  the  Baghdad 
line,  which  will  soon  be  overland  eastward,  and  the 
railways  surveyed  in  Persia.  Although  we  have  not  got 
a  complete  census,  statistics  regarding  Islam  are  no 
longer  mere  guess-work  or  wild  exaggerations.  Pro- 
fessor Westermann  of  Berlin  has  prepared  a  careful 
statistical  survey  for  Africa,  and  estimates  the  total 
number  of  Mohammedans  in  the  Dark  Continent  at 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD        207 

only  forty-two  millions.  For  the  rest  of  the  world 
the  following  statistics  may  be  given  with  confidence, 
and  recall  to  our  minds  the  great  numbers  and  the 
wide  distribution  of  Moslem  population  : 

India 66,577,247 

Philippines       . .          . .          . .          . .        277,547 

Dutch  East  Indies 35,308,996 

Russia  (Europe  and  Asia)     . .          . .   20,000,000 

Turkey  12,278,800 

Independent  Arabia  . .          . .          . .     2,500,000 

Afghanistan    . .          . .          . .          . .     5,000,000 

Persia 4,500,000 

China 8,421,000 

French  Possessions  in  Asia   . .          . .        232,000 

In  Europe 2,373,676 

North  America  8,000 

South  America  and  West  Indies      . .        166,061 
Australia         19,500 

A  grand  total  for  the  whole  world  of  about  two 
hundred  millions.  This  is  nearly  thirty  millions  less 
than  the  total  given  at  the  Cairo  Conference,  and  a 
hundred  million  less  than  the  total  given  by  the 
Moslem  press  of  Cairo.  But  it  is  sufficiently  large  to 
challenge  the  heroic  faith  and  the  united  intercession 
of  the  whole  Church  catholic.  More  careful  study 
by  Mr.  Marshall  Broomhall  and  Captain  D'Ollone's 
scientific  mission  have  greatly  reduced  the  estimate 
formerly  given  by  China ;  and  although  the  figures  for 
the  Sudan,  Morocco,  and  Persia  were  also  too  high, 
a  more  careful  survey  has  shown  strong  groups  of 
Moslems  in  unexpected  quarters.  In  Brazil  seven 
Arabic  journals  are  published,  and  on  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  which  has  10,000  Molsems,  we  are  told 


208         THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

that  no  less  than  1500  Moslem  marriages  are  cele- 
brated annually.  In  Madagascar,  Islam  is  spreading  ; 
in  Abyssinia  it  is  winning  over  thousands  of  nominal 
Christians ;  and  in  Japan  it  is  attempting  propa- 
gandism  in  modern  lines  through  the  press. 

This  wider  and  deeper  knowledge  of  the  spread 
and  the  character  of  Islam  has  raised  the  important 
question  of  the  fundamental  distinction  between  the 
animistic,  half-heathen  Moslems  of  Central  Africa 
and  Malaysia,  and  those  of  the  traditional  orthodox 
type.  The  former  number  at  least  fifty  millions,  are 
everywhere  accessible,  and  responsive  to  a  much 
greater  degree  than  are  those  in  the  old  Arabic- 
speaking  Moslem  lands.  And  besides  these  millions 
who  live  and  move  on  the  border-marshes  between 
Islam  and  Paganism,  we  face  to-day  a  new  kind  of 
Moslem.  In  Egypt,  Turkey,  Algeria,  India,  and 
Persia  there  are  educated  Moslems  of  the  New  School, 
who  have  utterly  abandoned  faith  in  traditional 
Islam — who  are  fast  drifting  toward  agnosticism  and 
open  infidelity.  Those  who  know  the  situation,  be- 
lieve. These  can  already  be  counted  by  the  millions 
— millions  stumbling  over  the  precipice  from  the 
twilight  of  Islam  into  midnight  and  death.  The 
fact  of  this  increased  and  more  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  problem  is  a  God-given  responsibility.  By 
putting  each  of  us  face  to  face  with  the  facts  He  lays 
on  us  the  responsibility.  "  If  thou  forbear  to  deliver 
them  that  are  drawn  into  death  and  those  that  are 
ready  to  be  slain ;  if  thou  sayest,  Behold  we  knew 
it  not ;  doth  not  He  that  pondereth  the  heart  con- 
sider it  ?  And  He  that  keepeth  thy  soul  doth  not  He 
know  it  ?  And  shall  not  He  render  to  every  man 
according  to  his  works  ?  " 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD        209 

III.  The  present  political  crisis  in  the  Moslem 
world  shows  that  the  fulness  of  time  has  come. — The 
events  of  the  past  year  in  the  political  world  have 
made  so  deep  an  impression  upon  Mohammedans 
that  they  no  longer  fail  to  see  the  close  relation 
between  the  political  collapse  of  the  Turkish  Empire 
and  the  social  disintegration  of  the  Moslem  world  in 
general.  The  past  years  have  witnessed  a  series  of 
events  without  parallel  in  the  history  of  Islam.  The 
occupation  of  Morocco,  the  loss  of  Tripoli,  the  parti- 
tion of  Persia,  and  the  disastrous  defeat  of  Turkey 
by  the  Balkan  Allies  have  followed  each  other  with 
startling  rapidity.  The  Moslem  press  of  India,  of  the 
Near  East,  and  of  Egypt  has  been  openly  discussing 
not  only  such  questions  as  the  reason  for  Turkish  de- 
cline and  defeat,  but  the  more  practical  one  of  what 
will  happen  after  Turkey  breaks  up,  and  a  new  map 
of  Western  Asia  will  have  to  be  drawn,  as  well  as 
one  of  South-Eastern  Europe.  Pan-Islamism,  from  a 
political  standpoint,  is  dead.  The  one  country  where 
Islam  has  held  imperial  power,  and  to  which  the  rest 
of  the  Moslem  world  looked  as  the  seat  of  authority, 
openly  confesses  its  defeat  not  only  on  the  field  of 
battle,  but  in  the  field  of  diplomacy  and  statecraft. 
Shrunken  in  size,  shorn  of  all  its  outlying  provinces, 
distrusted  by  its  Arab  population,  divided  in  its 
councils,  and  bankrupt  in  its  finances,  constitutional 
Turkey  has  become  a  monument  to  the  failure  and 
collapse  of  Moslem  rule.  Since  the  beginning  of 
the  war  with  Italy,  we  are  told  that  Turkey  has  lost 
637,950  square  miles  in  area  of  territory  and  7,440,000 
subjects. 

The  prestige  of  Islam  as  a  Church  State  is  gone. 
No  independent  Moslem  State  now  exists  in  Africa. 
14 


210         THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

Everywhere  in  the  Dark  Continent  the  forces  of 
Western  civilisation  are  dominant,  and  Morocco  and 
Tripoli  may  now  look  forward  to  economic  and 
social  progress  of  the  same  character  as  we  wit- 
ness in  Egypt.  A  Moslem  writer  in  the  Hindustan 
Review,  speaking  of  the  result  of  the  Balkan  War, 
said  : 

"  The  defeat  of  Turkey  in  the  Balkans  came  as  a  great 
surprise  to  the  whole  world,  like  the  defeat  of  Russia  by 
Japan  a  few  years  ago.  But  it  was  more  than  a  surprise 
to  the  Mohammedan  world  ;  it  was  a  crushing  blow,  a 
staggering  revelation.  And  because  Turkey  was  regarded 
as  the  sole  surviving  power  of  Islam,  its  only  hope  of 
glory,  this  revelation  of  its  weakness  was  accompanied 
with  all  the  bitterness  of  a  present  disappointment  and 
the  uncertainty  of  a  gloomy  future.  It  was  such  a 
grievous  shock  that  it  unnerved  the  whole  Mohammedan 
world." 

In  Asiatic  Turkey  the  old  struggle  of  the  Arab 
against  the  Turk,  and  of  the  Old  Turk  against  the 
New  Turk,  is  full  of  unforeseen  possibilities,  In  the 
province  of  Hassa  last  year,  all  the  Turkish  officials 
were  turned  out  by  the  Arabs,  and  the  Turkish  Army 
quietly  told  to  leave  and  ship  to  Busrah.  In  the 
Baghdad  and  Busrah  vilayets  the  struggle  for  Home 
Rule  has  become  so  vigorous  that  at  times  the  Arabs 
attempt  to  dictate  the  policy  of  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment over  the  wires  to  Constantinople.  Decentralisa- 
tion is  the  watchword,  and  unless  wiser  councils 
prevail  with  the  Committee  of  Union  and  Progress, 
these  movements  for  self-government  in  the  various 
Turkish  provinces  threaten  the  disruption  of  the 
empire  from  within.  There  are  rumours  of  a  Triple 
Alliance  in  Arabia  between  the  Sherif  of  Mecca,  the 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD         211 

ruler  of  Nejd,  and  Ibn  Saood,  the  most  powerful 
prince  of  the  interior.  The  province  of  Yemen  is 
again  in  rebellion,  and  even  the  best  friends  of 
Turkey  can  see  no  future  for  her  save  the  gradual 
partition  of  the  provinces  between  the  Powers. 
Already  in  the  newspaper  dispatches,  diplomatic 
secrets  are  leaking  out,  and  not  only  the  man  on 
the  street  in  London,  but  in  Beirut  and  Damascus, 
is  discussing  the  future  spheres  of  influence  of 
Germany,  England,  France,  and  Russia  in  Asiatic 
Turkey. 

A  similar  crisis  can  be  observed  in  other  lands. 
Persia,  under  its  new  Constitution  and  with  its  high 
hopes  for  liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity,  was  not 
"  strangled,"  as  Mr.  Shuster  has  indicated  in  his 
book,  by  Russian  occupation  on  the  north  and 
British  influence  in  the  south,  alone.  Persian  con- 
stitutional government  died  at  its  birth  because  the 
Persians  themselves  are  unfit  for  self-government. 
The  Times  of  London,  in  a  leading  article,  speaking 
of  Persia  under  the  heading,  "  The  Death-bed  of  an 
Ancient  Kingdom,"  said  : 

"  Could  some  later  Gibbon  give  form  and  cohesion  to 
its  masses  of  authentic  details,  he  might  draw  a  picture 
which  would  certainly  have  no  present  parallel  anywhere 
in  the  world,  not  even  in  China.  It  is  impossible  to  close 
its  perusal  without  a  deep  impression  of  the  utter  hope- 
lessness of  the  Persian  situation.  The  child  Shah,  the 
absentee  Regent,  the  helpless  Cabinet  which  resigns  once 
a  week,  the  Treasurer- General,  wringing  his  hands  in 
agonised  appeal  for  money  to  fill  an  empty  treasury,  are 
only  the  more  conspicuous  figures  upon  a  sea  of  dismal 
anarchy." 

The  Russian  occupation  of  the  north,  the  British 


212          THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

pacification  of  the  south,  and  the  posible  control 
even  of  the  neutral  zone  by  these  Powers,  will  usher 
in  a  new  day  of  liberty  and  progress  for  Persia.  The 
American  missionaries  welcome  Russian  rule  in  pre- 
ference to  Persian  anarchy. 

India  and  Malaysia,  with  over  100,000,000  Moham- 
medans under  a  Christian  emperor  and  a  Christian 
queen,  enjoy  the  blessings  of  civilised  government. 
Here  there  is  every  freedom  for  missionary  effort  and 
enterprise.  An  open  door  to  one-half  of  the  Moslem 
world  !  Only  in  Afghanistan  is  there  still  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Mohammedans  under  direct 
Moslem  rule,  and  even  here  the  Young  Afghan  Party 
has  come  forward  with  a  programme  of  constitutional 
reform  and  progress.  They  favour  Western  educa- 
tion, and  may  perhaps  themselves  unbar  the  gates 
of  this  great  closed  land. 

The  results  of  this  universal  political  collapse  as 
regards  Moslem  rule  are  deep  and  far-reaching. 
Because  Islam  is  a  Church  State  the  occupation  of 
Moslem  lands  and  their  control  by  Western  govern- 
ments affects  the  whole  criminal  law  and  whole 
sections  of  the  civil  law,  and  compels  the  readjust- 
ment of  the  religious  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
Koran,  with  its  mediaeval  legislation,  to  new  conditions 
and  the  demands  of  civilised  colonial  governments. 
There  was  a  time  when  European  colonial  govern- 
ments, terror-stricken  by  ear  of  Pan-Islamism, 
favoured  Islam  or  compromised  Christianity  in  their 
attempts  to  meet  this  crisis.  This  is  still  the  case  in 
some  parts  of  Africa.  But  a  change  for  the  better  is 
already  evident.  The  Dutch  Colonial  Government 
is  now  following  a  new  policy,  favouring  the  work  of 
missions  and  opposing  the  further  spread  of  Islam 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD         213 

throughout  Malaysia.  At  the  German  Colonial 
Congress  in  1910  the  Moslem  peril  in  East  Africa  was 
fearlessly  discussed,  and  a  strong  resolution  adopted, 
and  although  we  have  quoted  it  in  a  previous  chapter 
we  venture  to  think  that  it  may  not  be  inappropriate 
to  repeat  it  here. 

"  Since  the  progress  of  Islam  in  our  colonies  is  accom- 
panied by  grave  perils,  this  Colonial  Congress  recommends 
a  thorough  study  of  Moslem  propagandism.  The  Congress 
is  thoroughly  convinced  that  everything  which  favours 
the  progress  of  Islam  and  hinders  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity, should  be  avoided,  and  especially  commends 
the  cultural  efforts  of  missionary  education  and  hospital 
work  to  the  support  of  the  Colonial  Government.  We 
also  recognise  in  the  Moslem  peril  an  urgent  challenge 
to  German  Christianity  to  occupy  the  regions  threatened 
by  Islam  with  missionary  effort "  (Report,  p.  62). 

It  is  remarkable  that  this  result  followed  a  pre- 
sentation of  the  subject  by  Inspector  Axenfeld, 
representing  Protestant  missions ;  Dr.  Hansen, 
representing  the  Roman  Catholics ;  and  Professor 
Becker,  one  of  the  keenest  students  of  Islam  from 
a  secular  standpoint.  Surely  if  the  Colonial  Con- 
gress was  so  gravely  impressed  by  the  present 
situation  in  Africa,  its  appeal  should  find  a  response 
among  the  students  of  Great  Britain,  America,  and 
the  Continent. 

As  a  reaction,  and  in  some  cases  as  a  revolt,  in 
the  present  political  crisis,  we  note  two  counter- 
movements  :  that  of  Mahdism  and  of  Pan-Islamic 
Nationalism.  Andre"  Servier  has  shown  that  these 
two  movements  are  mutually  hostile,  and  are  both 
hopeless  as  regards  their  ideals.  The  one  is 


214          THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

strongest  in  the  West  and  among  the  uneducated 
masses  of  North  Africa.  Their  hope  for  the  rise 
of  a  Mahdi,  who  shall  restore  the  lost  empire  of 
Islam,  is  based  upon  eschatological  ideas,  and  from 
time  to  time  produces  political  unrest,  as  we  have 
seen  in  the  Sahara,  at  Khartoum,  and,  more 
recently,  in  Somaliland.  These  hopes  are  kindled 
by  the  dervish  orders,  especially  the  Sennusi. 
Pan-Islamic  Nationalism,  on  the  contrary,  has  its 
centres  in  Calcutta,  Constantinople,  and  Cairo.  It  is 
strongest  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Moslem  world,  and 
has  its  followers  among  those  who  have  received  a 
Western  education.  Over  against  these  two  move- 
ments it  is  the  task  of  Christianity  to  point  out  that 
the  real  Mahdi,  who  can  satisfy  all  our  spiritual  hopes, 
is  none  other  than  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  proclaim  to 
the  Moslem  masses  the  hope  of  His  return.  The 
Second  Advent  is  a  doctrine  which  has  a  real  place 
in  the  theology  of  Islam  as  well  as  in  Christianity. 
It  has  not  yet  come  to  its  own.  We  should  present 
it,  apart  from  any  pet  theory,  in  its  living  reality  as 
revealed  to  us  in  the  Gospel.  In  the  same  way, 
Christianity  and  Christian  education  are  the  only 
hope  for  a  real  Nationalism.  The  development  of 
character  in  the  school  of  Jesus  Christ  is  the  only 
guarantee  of  liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity,  as  well 
as  of  self-government,  for  the  nations  of  the  Nearer 
East.  Who  will  carry  this  evangel  to  them  ? 

IV.  The  social  and  intellectual  crisis  in  the  Moslem 
world  is  a  present-day  call. — The  impact  of  the  West, 
through  trade,  governments,  and  education,  has 
utterly  changed  old  social  standards,  practices,  and 
ideals.  In  this,  missionary  education  has  had  the 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD        215 

largest  influence.  The  daily  life  of  an  educated 
Moslem  in  Constantinople  or  Cairo  affords  a  vivid 
illustration.  *Here  stands  our  friend  Mohammed 
Effendi,  clad  in  Western  costume,  with  a  good  know- 
ledge of  French  or  of  English,  in  touch  with  the 
best  and  the  worst  of  Western  literature  and  culture, 
ambitious  to  take  his  place  in  the  march  of  progress, 
and  yet  at  every  step  confronted  by  the  question, 
Which  shall  I  choose — the  old  religion  or  the  new 
civilisation  ?  When  he  takes  his  purse  from  his 
pocket,  ten  to  one  the  question  has  already  been 
decided  against  tradition,  that  hog's  leather  is  not 
polluting.  But  shall  he  put  his  money  out  at  interest, 
which  is  forbidden  by  the  Koran  ?  Shall  he  keep 
his  watch  true  to  Western  time,  or  set  it  at  sunset  as 
all  pious  Moslems  have  done  since  watches  were 
invented  ?  Shall  he  follow  the  Western  calendar  or 
that  of  Arabia  ?  Shall  he  risk  religious  contamina- 
tion by  taking  his  food  in  a  Greek  restaurant,  where 
lard  is  used  ?  How  shall  he  find  the  true  Kibla 
towards  which  to  make  his  prostrations  on  an  ocean- 
steamer  or  in  a  railway  carriage  zigzagging  from 
Cairo  to  Alexandria  ?  The  question  of  ceremonial 
washing  before  prayer  is  greatly  complicated  when 
the  ordinary  ritual  cannot  be  fulfilled  because  of 
Western  boots  and  shoes.  Many  ordinary  medicines 
cannot  be  taken  without  offence  to  Moslem  law, 
because  they  contain  alcohol.  His  amusements  and 
artistic  tastes  also  run  counter  to  the  best  traditions 
of  the  Moslem  religion.  It  is  still  an  open  question 
among  Mohammedans  whether  sculpture  and  photo- 
graphy are  allowable,  and  whether  the  gramophone 
and  the  theatre  are  permissible  amusements  ;  and 
when  our  friend  yields  in  all  these  particulars  to  the 


216          THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

impact  of  the  West,  those  who  are  true  to  the  old 
ideals  do  not  hesitate  to  call  him  a  kqffir,  that  is, 
unbeliever.  And  as  regards  the  Old  Islam,  their 
accusation  is  just. 

The  New  Islam  is  therefore  anxious  to  incorporate 
all  the  progress  and  ideals  of  Western  civilisation  by 
a  reinterpretation  of  the  Koran.  They  attempt  to 
prove  that  Islam  was  not  propagated  by  the  sword, 
that  slavery  was  only  a  temporary  institution,  and 
that  polygamy  was  not  permitted  by  the  Prophet 
Mohammed — in  fact,  that  he  himself  was  not  really 
a  polygamist.  These  feats  of  exegesis  would  be 
ridiculous,  if  they  were  not  pathetic.  All  educated 
Moslems  are  abandoning  the  traditions  and  taking 
refuge  in  the  Koran  for  a  final  stand  against  Chris- 
tianity, if  it  be  possible.  The  character  of  the  Prophet 
is  becoming  a  stumbling-block  to  all  earnest  thinkers, 
and  there  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Moham- 
medans whose  social  and  moral  ideals  are  higher 
than  those  of  Mohammed  himself.  Could  there  be  a 
stronger  call  than  this  for  us  to  present  to  them  the 
reality  of  the  living  Christ,  Who  is  at  once  the  ideal 
of  character  and  its  creator ;  its  author  and  its 
finisher  ? 

Popular  education,  both  under  government  super- 
vision and  through  the  effort  and  example  of  Christian 
missions,  as  well  as  the  enormous  influence  of  the 
Moslem  press,  are  spreading  these  new  ideas  every- 
where. Great  popular  movements  like  the  Sharikat 
Islam  in  Java,  or  the  Moslem  League  of  India,  are 
also  indications  of  this  new  spirit.  The  former 
movement  began  in  Java  only  in  1908  and  has 
already  held  a  congress  where  thirty  thousand  people 
were  present.  In  some  respects  it  seems  to  be  a 


PILGRIMS  AT  MECCA 

In  the  valley  of  Mina,  stoning  the  devil-pillar. 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD        217 

successor  of  the  Boedi  Oetama,  a  young  Javanese 
movement  for  self-government  and  nationalism,  but 
it  is  on  a  still  larger  scale  and  appears  more  religious 
in  character. 
A  missionary  writes  : 

"  What  the  future  of  the  movement  will  be  no  one  can 
say,  but  it  is  certain  that  within  the  past  year  greater 
changes  have  come  into  the  minds  of  the  Javanese  than 
in  the  past  twenty-five  years.  We  stand  before  a  new 
epoch.  Will  it  be  favourable  for  the  spread  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Jesus  Christ  ?  It  is  a  call  to  persevering  prayer  that 
Java  in  its  present  awakening  may  not  only  desire  educa- 
tion and  true  nationalism,  but  also  that  salvation  which 
is  only  in  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord." 

V.  The  present-day  spiritual  crisis  in  Islam  is  a 
call  to  evangelism. — No  thinking  Moslem  can  face  the 
present  world  situation  of  Islam  without  realising 
that  from  the  side  of  politics  and  education  the  very 
foundations  of  Islam  are  in  danger.  But  in  addition 
to  this  the  old  Islam  is  becoming  conscious  of  its 
spiritual  bankruptcy.  The  International  Review  of 
Missions  has  had  a  series  of  articles  on  the  "  Vital 
Forces  of  Christianity  and  Islam."  The  Moslems  in 
Cairo  and  in  Calcutta  are  printing  articles  on  the 
dying  forces  at  work  in  their  religion.  Mr.  S.  Khuda 
Bakhsh,  an  enlightened  Moslem  of  India,  says  of  his 
experiences  at  Mecca  : 

14  To-day  the  mullahs  of  Mecca  mount  a  pulpit  and 
air  their  erudition  ;  that  is,  their  knowledge  of  the  tradi- 
tions, as  they  interpret  them  according  to  their  respective 
schools,  and  end  with  a  few  wandering,  lifeless  sentences 
in  condemnation  of  all  heretics,  in  contempt  of  this  life, 
and  in  praise  of  the  world  to  come.  A  philosopher  would 


218          THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

consider  their  sermons  ridiculous.  .  .  .  The  wonder  is 
that  the  faithful  can  be  found  to  obey  the  behests  of  these 
tradition-ridden  miracle-mongers,  who  do  nothing  to 
lessen  the  breach  between  the  sects,  but  leave  the  more 
enlightened  laymen  to  lead  the  way  to  reunion.  My 
Meccan  experiences  prove  this,  that  the  faith  of  the 
priest  is  stagnant  from  the  want  of  the  breath  of  reason. 
In  its  decadence  Islam  is  priest-begotten  and  priest- 
ridden." 

Everywhere  Moslems  are  bemoaning  the  fact  that 
the  day  of  opportunity  is  lost,  that  their  religion  is 
on  the  decline,  and  that  its  ideals  are  not  high  enough 
to  bear  comparison  with  those  of  Christianity.  We 
have  already  quoted  at  length  (p.  181  ff.)  from  the 
booklet  under  the  title,  Where  is  Islam  ? — An  Essay 
setting  forth  the  Present  Condition  of  Moslems,  Socially, 
Intellectually,  and  Morally. 

A  similar  cry  from  the  heart  of  the  old  school  was 
recently  heard  in  an  Arabic  journal  published  at 
Zanzibar : 

"  The  Christian  Powers  of  the  West  have  made  a 
determined  attack  upon  the  East  with  cavalry  and 
infantry  and  ironclads  and  their  political  organisations. 
The  pillars  of  the  East  are  tottering,  its  thrones  are  being 
destroyed,  its  power  is  being  shattered,  and  its  supremacy 
is  being  obliterated.  The  Moslem  world  is  divided  against 
itself,  and  every  one  is  busied  with  his  own  private 
interests.  Brother  no  longer  listens  to  the  cry  of  brother. 
.  .  .  The  missionaries  are  strengthening  themselves  in 
their  attack  upon  the  Moslem  faith,  not  being  satisfied 
with  gaining  possession  of  the  Moslem  kingdoms  and  their 
states.  What  has  befallen  the  Moslem  world  from  their 
poisonous  breath  is  due  to  the  divisions  of  the  Moslem 
world,  their  mutual  hatred,  and  the  divisions  in  their 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD        219 

kingdoms.    In  this  way  they  have  lost  the  whole  world  ; 
and  their  sickness  is  incurable." 

It  is  for  us  to  tell  them  that  there  is  balm  in 
Gilead,  and  that  the  Great  Physician,  Jesus  Christ, 
can  heal  the  open  sore  of  the  world  ! 

The  advocates  of  the  New  Islam  are  our  allies  in  all 
questions  of  social  reform  and  in  the  raising  of  new 
ethical  standards.  Men  like  Ameer  Ali  and  Khuda 
Bakhsh  of  India,  the  late  Kasim  Amin  Bey  in 
Egypt,  and  Gasprinsky  in  Russia,  are  all  of  them 
engaged  in  adjusting  the  old  Islam  to  the  standards 
of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  There  is  a  new  attitude 
towards  Christianity  and  the  Bible  everywhere  among 
all  classes.  Instead  of  arrogance  and  fanaticism,  a 
willingness  to  hear  and  to  investigate.  If  the  Moslem 
problem  is,  as  a  missionary  in  Turkey  stated,  "  To  get 
the  proudest  man  in  the  world  to  take  the  thing  he 
hates  from  the  hand  of  the  man  whom  he  despises,"  we 
already  see  its  solution  at  every  mission  station.  The 
increase  of  Bible  sales  in  Arabia,  amounting  to  over 
7000  in  one  year  ;  the  freedom  for  public  preaching 
in  Persia,  in  bazaars,  and  even  in  mosques  ;  the  over- 
crowding of  Christian  hospitals  in  Turkey  ;  the  many 
public  baptisms  in  Egypt  and  in  India, — are  they  not 
all  tangible  proofs  of  a  new  day  of  opportunity  and 
promise  ?  Direct  work  for  Moslems  is  possible 
nearly  everywhere.  During  the  past  year  the  Gospel 
has  been  preached  in  places  which  were  formerly 
considered  dangerous  and  inaccessible — Jiddah,  the 
port  of  Mecca ;  Yenbo,  the  port  of  Medina ;  and 
Meshed  and  Kerbela,  the  great  Persian  centres  of 
pilgrimage. 

A  native  Christian  physician  in  the  Turkish  Army 
has  already  witnessed  for  Christ  in  Medina,  where 


220         THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

Christians  are  forbidden  entrance.     Is  not  all  this 
prophetic  of  the  day  when 

"  Uplifted  are  the  gates  of  brass ; 

The  bars  of  iron  yield 
To  let  the  King  of  Glory  pass  ; 
The  cross  hath  won  the  field  "  ? 

The  fields  to-day  are  white  unto  the  harvest.  There 
was  a  time  of  patient  preparation  and  of  hope  de- 
ferred which  maketh  the  heart  sick — the  days  of 
the  pioneers,  who  wearily  dragged  the  ploughshare 
of  God  breaking  fallow  ground  and  barren  rock. 
They  translated  the  Scriptures,  opened  schools,  and 
built  hospitals.  That  was  the  time  of  waiting,  of 
patient  opportunism,  and  of  indirect  methods  of 
approach.  To-day  all  has  changed.  From  India, 
Persia,  Morocco,  Egypt,  Turkey,  Arabia,  we  hear 
that  direct  work  for  Moslems  by  the  tactful  presenta- 
tion of  the  living  Christ  is  not  only  possible,  but 
fruitful  beyond  all  expectations.  We  may  truly  say 
that  the  Moslems  to-day  are  hungering  for  the 
Gospel,  and  in  some  places  eager  to  hear  the  claims  of 
Jesus  Christ.  In  Morocco  there  is  open-air  preaching 
to  Moslems  without  disturbance.  In  Cairo  and  other 
cities  of  Egypt  crowded  evangelistic  services  are  held 
every  week,  addressed  by  converted  Moslems  and  by 
missionaries.  Last  winter  the  numbers  that  came 
to  the  American  Mission  from  El  Azhar  University 
to  hear  the  Gospel  fearlessly  proclaimed  by  a  former 
Moslem  were  so  great  that  hundreds  were  turned 
away  at  the  doors  and  the  police  were  compelled  to 
clear  the  streets.  Yet  the  crowd  was  good-natured, 
and  we  only  regret  there  was  no  auditorium  large 
enough  to  hold  them.  Who  would  have  thought 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD        221 

that  such  public  mass  meetings  for  students  from 
El  Azhar  University  to  hear  the  Gospel  could  be 
advertised  in  the  Moslem  press  ?  Yet  this  has  been 
the  case  in  Cairo.  One  Moslem  paper  in  Tanta  even 
went  so  far  as  to  report  the  main  argument  of  my 
address  on  "  Christianity  the  Final  Religion,"  for  its 
readers.  There  was  a  time  when  we  spoke  of  sweet 
first-fruits  in  Moslem  lands.  To-day  we  witness  whole 
sheaves  gathered  for  the  coming  harvest.  In  Java 
there  are  over  24,000  converts  from  Islam,  and  more 
than  three  hundred  baptisms  every  year.  In  Sumatra 
the  missionaries  speak  of  the  arrest  of  Islam  in  its 
progress  among  the  pagan  tribes,  and  point  to  the 
miracle  of  God's  grace  among  the  Battaks.  From 
Bengal  we  hear  of  large  numbers  gathered  into  the 
Christian  Church.  "  In  nearly  every  district,"  writes 
John  Takle  in  Bengal,  "  there  are  to  be  found  Moslem 
converts,  and  in  one  district — Nadia — there  is  a 
Christian  community,  at  least  five  thousand  of  whom 
are  either  converts  or  descendants  of  converts  from 
the  Mohammedan  faith."  An  experienced  missionary 
from  Central  China  summed  up  the  situation  in 
that  marvellous  land  of  unprecedented  opportunities 
in  these  words  :  "  /  am  more  than  ever  convinced  that 
the  fulness  of  time  has  come  for  the  Mohammedan 
people" 

The  Moslems  of  China  have  founded  an  educational 
union  with  headquarters  at  Nanking  and  at  Peking. 
They  are  publishing  a  magazine  in  Arabic  and 
Mandarin.  There  is  a  revival  of  Arabic  study  in 
every  province  of  China,  and  now  is  the  time  to  pre- 
pare and  distribute  Arabic  Christian  literature  for 
China's  millions  who  have  no  higher  ideals  than 
those  of  the  Arabian  prophet.  Who  will  become 


222          THE  FULNESS  OF  TIME 

the  apostle  to  the  Moslems  of  China  and  lift  up  the 
banner  that  fell  from  the  grasp  of  William  W.  Borden, 
who  gave  his  all  and  laid  down  his  life  in  Cairo  ? 
From  Bulgaria  and  Albania,  from  Bengal  and  from 
the  Punjab,  news  reaches  us  of  the  beginnings  of 
what  may  become  mass  movements  towards  Chris- 
tianity from  Islam.  We  are  living  in  a  day  of  new 
possibilities.  We  are  the  heirs  of  the  ages,  the 
possessors  of  the  accumulated  energies  of  yet  un- 
answered prayers  of  the  stored-up  dynamic  of  faith, 
tears,  and  blood  in  the  Moslem  world.  The  glorious 
company  of  the  early  Moslem  apostles — Raymond 
Lull,  Henry  Martyn,  Keith  Falconer,  Bishop  French  ; 
the  noble  army  of  recent  martyrs — Dr.  Thorns  of 
Arabia,  Dr.  Payne  of  Cairo,  Dr.  Pennell  on  the 
borders  of  Afghanistan,  William  Borden  looking  out 
to  the  horizon  of  China — all  these  have  laboured  and 
we  are  entered  into  their  labours.  "  The  good  seed," 
said  Jesus  Christ,  "  are  the  children  of  the  Kingdom." 
"  Except  a  grain  of  wheat  fall  into  the  ground  and 
die ,  it  abideth  alone ;  but  if  it  die,  it  bringeth  forth 
much  fruit."  Who  will  consecrate  themselves  this 
day  for  the  evangelisation  of  the  Moslem  world  ? 
Who  will  put  his  life  into  the  hand  of  God  for  this 
sowing  ? 

The  present  situation  is  an  imperative  call  for 
hundreds  of  specially  trained  workers  in  every  mission 
area,  and  for  men  and  women  with  the  spirit  of  the 
pioneer  to  enter  the  unoccupied  fields  and  become 
the  good  seed  of  God  for  the  future  harvest.  Others 
are  needed  to  take  the  place  of  those  who  have  fallen 
at  the  front,  to  lift  their  fallen  standards,  to  complete 
their  unfinished  task,  to  be  baptized  in  their  spirit, 
baptized  for  the  dead.  When  we  think  of  men  like 


IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD        223 

Dr.  Thorns  of  Arabia,  Dr.  Payne  of  Cairo,  Dr. 
Pennell  of  India,  and  William  Borden,  who  laid 
down  his  life  for  China  in  Cairo,  we  say  with  Bishop 
Moule  : 

46  O  Eastern  lover  from  the  West ! 
Thou  hast  outsoared  these  prisoning  bars ; 
Thy  memory,  on  thy  Master's  breast, 
Uplifts  us  like  the  beckoning  stars. 
We  follow  on  where  thou  hast  led  ; 
Baptize  us,  Saviour,  for  the  dead." 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE  STUMBLING-BLOCK  OF  THE  CROSS 


"  THE  apostles  never  separated  reconciliation  in  any 
age  from  the  Cross  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ.  If  ever  we 
do  that  (and  many  are  doing  it  to-day)  we  throw  the  New 
Testament  overboard.  The  bane  of  so  much  that  claims 
to  be  more  spiritual  religion  at  the  present  day  is  that  it 
simply  jettisons  the  New  Testament,  and  with  it  historic 
Christianity.  The  extreme  critics,  people  that  live  upon 
monism  and  immanence,  rationalist  religion  and  spiritual 
impressionism,  are  people  who  are  deliberately  throwing 
overboard  the  New  Testament  as  a  whole,  deeply  as  they 
prize  it  in  parts." — Principal  P.  T.  FOBSYTH. 


226 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE   STUMBLING-BLOCK  OF  THE  CROSS1 

IT  was  the  deliberate  judgment  of  Dr.  James  Denney 
when  he  wrote  on  the  place  and  interpretation  in  the 
New  Testament  of  the  "  Death  of  Christ,"  some  years 
ago,  that  the  Atonement  did  not  have  the  place 
assigned  to  it,  either  in  modern  preaching  or  in 
theology,  which  it  has  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
that  the  proportion  given  to  it  in  average  current 
Christianity  was  not  that  of  the  apostles  in  their 
preaching.  Those  who  have  carefully  read  his  book 
must  admit  that  the  importance  of  the  death  of 
Christ  to  Christian  theology  and  life  cannot  be 
exaggerated.  Throughout  the  entire  New  Testa- 
ment the  Cross  dominates  everything.  It  interprets 
everything,  and  it  puts  all  things  in  their  true  relations 
to  each  other.  The  death  of  Christ  is  the  central 
truth  in  the  New  Testament,  and  therefore,  as  Denney 
remarks,  "  both  for  the  propagation  and  for  the 
scientific  construction  of  the  Christian  religion,  the 
death  of  Christ  is  of  supreme  importance."  How 
is  this  fact  related  to  the  Moslem  problem  ?  Is  the 
death  of  Christ  and  His  atoning  work  our  supreme 
message  ?  Ought  it  to  be  our  first  message  ? 

The  fundamental   difference  between   Islam   and 
Christianity  is   the    absence   in   the  former  of  the 
1  Greek,  <rK6.v5o,\ov ;  cf .  Gal.  v.  n  and  i  Cor.  i.  33,  R.V. 


228         THE  STUMBLING-BLOCK 

doctrine  of  the  Cross.  The  Cross  of  Christ  is  the 
missing  link  hi  the  Moslem's  creed,  and  not  only  in 
the  Koran  and  in  the  early  traditions,  but  in  the 
practical  experience  of  every  missionary,  especially 
in  lands  that  are  wholly  Moslem,  nothing  seems  to 
stand  out  more  prominently  than  Islam's  hatred  of 
the  Cross.  The  Koran  gives  Jesus  Christ  a  high 
place  among  the  prophets,  and  confers  on  Him  names 
and  titles  which,  if  rightly  interpreted,  would  place 
Him  above  them  all,  and  yet  it  does  so  only  by 
denying  His  death  and  His  atonement.  Modern 
Islam  differs  in  no  respect  from  orthodox  Islam  in 
this  particular ;  and  although  the  followers  of  the 
new  Islam  may  speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  Jesus 
Christ  as  regards  His  character,  His  miracles,  and 
His  influence  on  history,  they  occupy  the  orthodox 
position  in  this  respect ;  nor  do  they  find  a  place  in 
their  doctrine  of  salvation  for  Christ's  atonement. 
A  recent  writer,  and  a  missionary  of  long  experience 
in  Persia,  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  there  is  "  not  a 
single  important  fact  in  the  life,  person>  and  work  of 
our  Saviour  which  is  not  ignored,  perverted,  or 
denied  by  Islam."  Their  chief  denial,  however,  is 
of  His  death.  There  are  three  passages  in  the 
Koran  which  seem  to  indicate  that  Christ  did 
die: 

"  But  they  (the  Jews)  were  crafty,  and  God  was  crafty, 
for  God  is  the  best  of  crafty  ones  !  When  God  said,  '  O 
Jesus  !  I  will  make  thee  die  and  take  thee  up  again  to 
me,  and  will  clear  thee  of  those  who  misbelieve,  and  will 
make  those  who  follow  thee  above  those  who  misbelieve, 
at  the  day  of  judgment,  then  to  me  is  your  return.  I 
will  decide  between  you  concerning  that  wherein  ye 
disagree.  And  as  for  those  who  misbelieve,  I  will  punish 
them  with  grievous  punishment  in  this  world  and  the 


OF  THE  CROSS  229 

next,  and  they  shall  have  none  to  help  them.'  But  as 
for  those  who  believe  and  do  what  is  right,  He  will  pay 
them  their  reward,  for  God  loves  not  the  unjust  "  (Surah 
iii.  47-50). 

"  And  peace  upon  me  the  day  I  was  born,  and  the 
day  I  die,  and  the  day  I  shall  be  raised  up  alive  "  (Surah 
xix.  34). 

"  And  I  was  a  witness  against  them  so  long  as  I  was 
amongst  them,  but  when  Thou  didst  cause  me  to  die, 
Thou  wert  the  Watcher  over  them,  for  Thou  art  witness 
over  all  "  (Surah  v.  117). 

These  texts  certainly  seem  to  teach  that  Jesus  died. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  them,  Moslems  everywhere  quote 
the  other  verse  when  they  deal  with  Christians, 
whom  they  accuse  of  misbelief  : 

"  And  for  their  misbelief,  and  for  their  saying  about 
Mary  a  mighty  calumny,  and  for  their  saying,  '  Verily, 
we  have  killed  the  Messiah,  Jesus  the  son  of  Mary,  the 
apostle  of  God.'  .  .  .  BUT  THEY  DID  NOT  KILL  HIM  AND 

THEY  DID  NOT  CEUCIFY  HIM,  BUT  A  SIMILITUDE  WAS  MADE 

FOR  THEM.  And  verily,  those  who  differ  about  him  are 
in  doubt  concerning  him ;  they  have  no  knowledge 
concerning  him,  but  only  follow  an  opinion.  They  did 
not  kill  him,  for  sure  !  Nay,  God  raised  him  up  unto 
Himself"  (Surah  iv.  155,  156). 

In  the  traditions  which  have  come  down  to  us  from 
the  Prophet  himself  (or  which  have  been  invented  by 
followers  and  attributed  to  Mohammed  l),  this  denial 
of  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ  on  the  Cross  is  elaborated. 
As  apparently  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ  was  both 
affirmed  and  denied  in  the  Koran,  to  unify  its  teach- 
ing the  only  possible  way  of  escape  was  to  affirm 

1  Goldziher,  Mohammedanische  Studien,  vol.  ii. 


230         THE  STUMBLING-BLOCK 

that  although  He  died  for  a  few  hours  or  days,  He 
was  not  crucified.     We  read  in  Moslem  tradition  : l 

"  And  they  spat  upon  Him  and  put  thorns  upon  Him  ; 
and  they  erected  the  wood  to  crucify  Him  upon  it. 
And  when  they  came  to  crucify  Him  upon  the  tree,  the 
earth  was  darkened,  and  God  sent  angels,  and  they 
descended  between  them  and  between  Jesus ;  and  God 
cast  the  likeness  of  Jesus  upon  him  who  had  betrayed 
Him,  and  whose  name  was  Judas.  And  they  crucified 
him  in  His  stead,  and  they  thought  that  they  had  crucified 
Jesus.  Then  God  made  Jesus  to  die  for  three  hours,  and 
then  raised  Him  up  to  heaven ;  and  this  is  the  meaning 
of  the  Koran  verse  :  4  Verily,  I  will  cause  Thee  to  die, 
and  raise  Thee  unto  Me,  and  purify  Thee  above  those  who 
misbelieve.' ' 

In  addition  to  this,  Moslem  commentators  teach 
that  when  Christ  comes  again  the  second  time  He 
will  die,  emphasising,  as  it  were,  the  frailty  of  His 
human  nature,  which  even  after  His  return  from 
glory,  and  His  death  for  a  few  hours  before  His 
ascension,  is  still  subject  to  death,  in  this  also  flatly 
contradicting  all  the  teaching  of  the  New  Testament 
that  "  He  died  for  sin  once,  and  death  hath  no  more 
dominion  over  Him." 

Not  only  do  Moslems  deny  the  historical  fact  of 
the  Crucifixion,  but  from  the  days  of  Mohammed 
himself  until  now,  they  have  shown  a  strange  and 
strong  antipathy,  and  even  a  repugnance,  to  the  very 
sign  of  the  Cross.  It  is  related  by  El  Waqidi  that 
Mohammed  had  such  repugnance  to  the  very  form 
of  the  Cross  that  he  broke  everything  brought  into 
his  house  with  that  figure  upon  it.  This  may  have 
been  mere  superstition,  or,  as  Muir  remarks,  "  It  may, 

1  For  these  traditions  and  their  sources,  cf .  The  Moslem  Christ, 
pp.  78-112. 


OF  THE  CROSS  231 

on  the   other   hand,   have   been   symbolical   of   his 
extreme  aversion  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Crucifixion." 

According  to  Abu  Hurairah,  the  Prophet  said  : .  "  I 
swear  by  heaven  it  is  near  when  Jesus  the  Son  of 
Mary  will  descend  from  heaven  upon  you  people,  a 
just  King,  and  he  will  break  the  cross  and  kill  the 
swine."  In  certain  books  of  Moslem  law  it  is  ex- 
pressly laid  down  under  the  head  of  theft,  that  if  a 
cross  or  crucifix  is  stolen  from  a  church,  the  usual 
punishment  for  theft  is  not  incurred ;  although,  if 
it  be  stolen  from  a  private  dwelling  it  is  a  theft. 
It  is  well  known  to  readers  of  the  daily  press  that 
Turkey  and  Egypt  have  never  been  willing  to  have 
Red  Cross  Societies  under  the  International  Hague 
Convention  regulations,  but  have  organised  Red 
Crescent  Societies  instead.  A  more  recent  incident 
illustrating  Moslem  hatred  for  the  Cross  comes  to  us 
from  the  Sudan,  in  connection  with  the  postal  service. 
The  United  Empire  says  : 

"  In  the  early  days,  the  stamps  of  the  Sudan  bore  a 
watermark  which  for  many  months  passed  unnoticed  by 
their  users.  But  one  day  a  Mohammedan,  in  an  idle 
moment,  held  one  of  them  up  to  the  light,  and  discovered 
to  his  dismay  that  this  watermark  bore  an  obvious 
resemblance  to  a  Maltese  cross.  Now,  to  a  devout 
Moslem,  any  suspicion  of  veneration  to  the  Cross  of  the 
Christians  is  not  only  distasteful,  it  is  absolutely  for- 
bidden. And  here  for  months  the  Moslem  scribes  of  the 
Sudan  had  been  placing  their  lips,  or  at  least  their  tongues, 
to  its  hidden  design  unknowingly.  It  may  seem  a  small 
thing  to  some  people  ;  but  the  world  knows  what  a  doleful 
page  of  history  has  been  written  merely  because  some 
cartridges  were  greased  ;  and  in  the  Sudan  the  authorities 
acted  with  discretion.  They  changed  the  watermark. 
1  Muir's  Mohammed,  vol.  iii.  p.  61. 


232        THE  STUMBLING-BLOCK 

Thus  to  philatelists  a  Sudan  stamp  watermarked  with 
a  design  bearing  a  resemblance  to  a  Maltese  cross,  is  a 
rather  valuable  discovery." 

It  is  true  that  educated  Moslems  are  becoming 
ashamed  of  this  repugnance  to  the  symbol  of  the 
Cross,  and  try  to  explain  away  certain  of  the  early 
traditions  or  present-day  practices.  In  a  supposed 
interview  with  a  newspaper  correspondent,  Sheikh 
Rashid  Ridha,  of  Cairo,  utterly  denies  the  story 
related  by  Charles  Doughty  regarding  Arab  boys 
who  are  taught  to  defile  the  Cross,  drawn  in  the 
desert  sand.1  But  the  story  is  true.  No  one  man 
has  so  closely  examined  and  so  carefully  reported 
popular  Islam  as  it  exists  in  Arabia  to-day  as  this 
prince  among  explorers.  Here  are  his  words  : 

"  In  the  evening  I  had  wandered  to  an  oasis  side ; 
there  a  flock  of  the  village  children  soon  assembling  with 
swords  and  bats,  followed  my  heels,  hooting, '  O  Nasrany  ! 
O  Nasrany  !  "  and  braving  about  the  kaffir  and  cutting 
crosses  in  the  sand  before  me,  they  spitefully  denied 
them,  shouting  a  villainous  carol.  .  .  .  This  behaviour  in 
the  children  was  some  sign  of  the  elders'  meaning  from 
whom  doubtless  they  had  heard  their  villainous  rhyming." 

The  Armenian  massacres  afforded  other  terrible 
instances  of  this  fanatic  hatred  of  the  Cross,  the 
details  of  which  can  never  be  published.  It  is  true, 
on  the  other  hand,  as  Mr.  Leeder  states,  that  in  the 
Sahara  and  Tunisia  the  Cross  is  used  as  a  tattoo  mark 
and  in  the  decoration  of  weapons,  etc.  This  use  of 
the  Cross,  however,  in  certain  parts  of  the  Moslem 
world  is  due  either  to  the  fact  that  it  has  continued 
in  use  by  tribes  which  were  once  Christian,  or  that 
the  symbol  is  of  sinister  import.  The  Tuaregs  of  the 
1  See  S.  H.  Leeder,  Veiled  Mysteries  of  Egypt,  pp.  323,  324. 


OF  THE  CROSS  233 

Sahara,  as  well  as  the  Kabyles  of  North  Africa,  were 
undoubtedly  once  Christian.1  And  as  regards  the 
latter  explanation,  abundant  proof  exists  in  such 
works  as  those  of  El  Buni  on  Magic,  Talismans,  and 
Amulets.  Near  the  Bab  el  Fatooh  in  Cairo,  Moslejn 
women  to-day  buy  silver  amulets  specially  made  for 
them,  consisting  of  a  rude  image  of  the  Christ  on  the 
Cross,  and  on  the  back  are  verses  from  the  Koran  ! 
It  is  well  known  that  these  are  worn  not  to  honour 
the  Christ  or  the  Cross,  but  with  the  intention  of 
driving  out  demons  by  the  use  of  a  sign  which  is  itself 
considered  demonic  ! 

Not  only  is  the  symbol  of  the  Cross  a  stumbling- 
block  to  the  Moslem  mind,  but  the  doctrine  of  the 
Cross  is  an  offence.  A  number  of  books  and  pamph- 
lets that  have  recently  appeared  show  this  antipathy. 
Halil  Halid  in  his  book,  The  Crescent  versus  the 
Cross,  shows  how  far  even  the  educated  Moslem  carries 
this  opposition.  He  is  an  Honorary  M.A.  of  Cam- 
bridge and  a  Licentiate  of  the  Institute  of  Law  in 
Constantinople,  and  writes  : 

"  Islam  also  holds  different  views  on  the  death  of 
Christ.  Whether  historically  correct  or  not,  it  does  not 
admit  the  possibility  of  the  crucifixion  of  Christ.  It 
advances  the  theory  that  some  one  else  must  have  been 
crucified  by  mistake  in  His  place,  as  it  cannot  reconcile 
His  lofty  position  with  the  alleged  form  of  His  death,  a 
form  which,  to  the  Moslem  mind,  only  befits  criminals. 
To  the  Moslem  mind  it  is  not  only  sacrilegious  but  also 
illogical  at  once  to  deify  Him  and  make  Him  suffer  such 
a  death.  The  Christian  explanation  that '  Christ  suffered 
that  painful  death  for  our  sins  '  fails  to  satisfy  the  critics 
of  the  non-Christian  world.  It  is  doubtless  convenient 
for  many  Christians  to  regard  the  passages  of  their 
1  Hans  Visscher,  Across  the  Sahara,  p.  168. 


234        THE  STUMBLING-BLOCK 

Scriptures  concerning  the  crucifixion  as  an  insurance 
policy,  and  to  conduct  themselves  in  a  manner  which  is 
hardly  pious,  feeling  sure  that  they  are  safe  against 
hell-fire  because  Christ  suffered  for  their  sins.  Mussul- 
man critics  say  '  what  fanciful  notions  these  Christians 
entertain  on  this  subject !  They  not  only  state  that  the 
One,  whom  they  are  to  worship,  died  such  a  death,  but 
also  make  a  mournful  picture  out  of  their  notion  of 
crucifixion,  representing  it  by  the  fine  arts — a  picture 
which  is  neither  realistic  nor  aesthetic.' ' 

Many  of  the  most  bitter  attacks  on  Christianity 
by  the  Moslem  press  in  recent  years  have  been 
similarly  directed  against  the  Cross  and  its  teaching. 
In  a  book  recently  published  at  Beirut  by  Mohammed 
Tahir  et  Tannir,  entitled  Pagan  Elements  in  the 
Christian  Religion,  the  author  draws  a  parallel  be- 
tween Krishna  and  Christ,  and  even  illustrates  by 
crude  woodcuts  Krishna's  death  and  the  death  of 
,  Christ  on  the  Cross,  the  one  with  a  crown  of  glory, 
the  other  with  a  crown  of  thorns  !  The  book  tries 
to  prove  that  all  Christian  teaching  regarding  the 
Crucifixion  and  the  Atonement  is  not  based  on 
historical  fact,  but  was  borrowed  piecemeal  from 
heathenism.  Mohammed  Tewfiq  Sidqi  in  a  book 
just  published,  entitled  Din  Allah,  attacks  the 
Christian  faith  both  as  regards  its  documents  and  its 
dogma,  using  the  arguments  of  modern  destructive 
criticism,  without  being  aware  apparently  that  it  is  a 
two-edged  sword  which  would  play  havoc  with  the 
Koran  and  the  traditions  if  its  edge  were  once  tried. 
In  the  introduction  he  states  that  Christ  is  in  no 
sense  an  atonement  for  sin,  and  that  ideas  of  sacrifice 
and  atonement  are  only  remnants  of  heathenism. 
He  attempts  to  prove  that  none  of  the  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament,  especially  not  those  found  in 


OF  THE  CROSS  235 

Isa.  liii.,  Ps,  xxii.,  and   Zech.  xii.  13,  refer   in  any 
way  to  Christ  or  His  death  on  the  Cross. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice,  however,  how  more  and 
more  the  advocates  of  Islam  and  the  opponents  of 
Christianity  among  Moslems  are  becoming  thoroughly 
aware  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Cross  is  the  Gibraltar 
of  the  Christian  faith,  the  centre  and  pivot  of 
Christian  theology,  and  the  very  foundation  of  the 
Christian  hope.  In  the  last  number  of  a  monthly 
review,  published  by  Seyyid  Mohammed  Rashid 
Ridha,  El  Manar,  twelve  pages  are  devoted  to  a 
rather  candid  inquiry  regarding  the  crucifixion  of 
Christ,  and  in  the  very  introduction  of  his  subject 
the  learned  author  says  that  "  the  belief  in  the 
Crucifixion  is  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  religion ; 
if  it  were  not  for  its  doctrine  of  the  Cross  and  re- 
demption, which  are  the  root  of  the  Christian  religion, 
they  would  not  spend  time  in  calling  upon  men  to 
accept  and  embrace  it."  The  writer  then  goes  on  to 
state  that  he  has  gathered  the  significance  of  this 
doctrine  and  the  sum  of  its  teaching  by  attendance 
at  public  meetings  and  by  reading  the  books  of 
Christians,  and  he  sets  before  his  Moslem  readers  this 
summary  : 

"  Adam,  when  he  transgressed  God  Most  High  by 
eating  from  the  forbidden  tree,  became  a  sinner  and  all 
his  descendants  with  him,  and  therefore  worthy  of  punish- 
ment in  the  world  to  come  and  of  everlasting  destruction. 
In  consequence  all  his  posterity  were  reckoned  as  sinners, 
and  worthy  also  of  punishment.  And  so  all  his  posterity 
were  guilty  of  Adam's  sin.  Now  since  God  Most  High 
had  the  attributes  of  both  justice  and  mercy,  a  difficulty 
(far  be  it  from  God  Most  High  to  be  in  difficulty  !)  occurred 
to  Him  because  of  Adam's  transgression ;  namely,  that 
if  He  should  punish  Adam  for  his  sin,  this  would  be  opposed 


236         THE  STUMBLING-BLOCK 

to  His  mercy,  and  He  would  not  be  merciful !  And  if  He 
did  not  punish  Adam,  it  would  be  opposed  to  His  justice, 
and  He  would  not  be  just !  As  if,  since  the  disobedience 
of  Adam,  God  spent  His  time  in  thinking  out  a  plan  by 
which  He  could  combine  His  justice  and  His  mercy! 
Now  He  did  not  arrive  at  it  until  about  1912  years  ago 
(God  forbid  !  God  forbid  !),  and  the  plan  was  that  His 
Son  Most  High,  who  is  God  Himself,  should  tabernacle, 
in  the  womb  of  a  woman  from  among  the  sons  of  Adam, 
and  be  conceived  by  her  and  born  from  her,  and  become 
her  child ;  a  perfect  man  since  He  was  her  son,  and 
perfect  God  since  He  was  the  Son  of  God,  for  the  Son  of 
God,  they  say,  is  God  ;  and  He  was  free  also  from  all  the 
sin  and  the  transgression  of  the  sons  of  Adam.  Then 
after  He  had  lived  a  short  time  with  men,  eating  what 
they  ate  and  drinking  what  they  drank,  and  enjoying  what 
they  enjoyed,  and  suffering  as  they  suffered,  He  was  over- 
powered by  His  enemies,  who  tried  to  kill  Him  by  a 
shameful  death,  namely,  the  death  on  the  cross,  which  is 
cursed  in  the  Holy  Book.  And  so  He  bore  the  curse  and 
the  cross  for  the  redemption  of  humanity  and  their 
salvation  from  their  sins,  as  John  said  in  his  first  Epistle : 
'And  He  is  the  propitiation  for  our  sins,  and  not  for 
our  sins  only,  but  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world.' 
(Far  be  it  from  God  the  Lord  of  glory  to  be  so 
described !)  " 

We  can  see  from  this  literal  translation  of  a  brief 
portion  of  the  article  in  question  how  fully  Moslems 
to-day  are  aware  that  the  fundamental  difference 
between  Islam  and  Christianity  lies  in  the  doctrine 
of  the  Cross. 

Following  this  exposition  of  the  teaching  of 
Christians,  the  article  summarises  the  objections  to 
it  as  follows  : 

1.  It  is  opposed  to  reason. 

2.  It  is  opposed  to  theism.     How  can  God,  Who  is 


OF  THE  CROSS  237 

omnipresent   and   everlasting,   degrade   Himself   by 
dwelling  in  a  virgin's  womb  ? 

3.  It  is  opposed  to  God's  knowledge  ;   for  the  plan 
of  salvation — if  such  it  is — was  an  after-thought. 

4.  It  is  opposed  to  both  the  mercy  and  justice  of 
God  ;    to  His  mercy,  because  He  allowed  Christ  to 
suffer,  being  innocent,  without  delivering  Him  ;   and 
to  His  justice,  in  allowing  those  who  crucified  Him 
to  do  it  unpunished. 

5.  It  leads  to  impiety,  because  if  this  is  the  way  of 
salvation,  then  no  matter  how  wicked  a  man  is  he 
finds  deliverance  through  the  Cross,  and  will  never 
be  punished  for  his  sins. 

6.  It   is   unnecessary.     We   have    never  heard   it 
stated  by  any  reasonable  person,  or  those  who  are 
learned  in  law,  that  the  attribute  of  justice  is  abro- 
gated by  the  pardon  of  a  criminal ;  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  considered  a  virtue  to  pardon  an  offender.     Why 
should  not  God  do  so  ? 

From  the  above  it  is  easy  to  judge  that  the  modern 
standpoint  of  Islam  is  not  only  opposed  to  the 
historical  fact  of  the  Crucifixion,  but  to  the  historical 
interpretation  of  that  fact  in  Christian  theology. 

The  question  here  arises  how  can  we  account  for 
Mohammed's  repugnance  to  the  Crucifixion  ?  Was 
it  that  he  desired  to  defend  the  reputation  of  Jesus, 
the  greatest  prophet  before  him,  from  the  stain  which 
he  considered  was  cast  upon  it  by  the  Jews,  who 
boasted  that  they  had  slain  Him  ?  (Surah  iv.  156). 
It  may  have  been  that  to  Mohammed's  mind  there 
was  something  abhorrent  in  the  idea  of  a  prophet 
being  left  to  the  mercy  of  his  foes,  especially  in  the 
case  of  one  of  the  greater  prophets.  The  Koran 
makes  much  of  how  God  wrought  deliverance  for 
Noah,  Abraham,  Lot,  and  others,  even  by  a  miracle, 


238        THE  STUMBLING-BLOCK 

It  may  have  been  that  Mohammed,  therefore,  borrow- 
ing an  idea  of  certain  Christian  sects,  believed  and 
taught  that  Christ  was  not  crucified.  »  The  Basilidians, 
we  are  told,  held  that  the  person  crucified  was  Simon 
of  Cyrene  ;  the  Cyrentians  and  Carpocratians,  that 
it  was  one  of  Jesus'  followers ;  while  the  Persian 
heretic  Mani  taught  that  it  was  the  prince  of  darkness 
himself.1  Perhaps  there  was  nothing  to  prevent 
Mohammed  from  adopting  this  view,  as  he  was  but 
imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  real  doctrines  of 
Christianity./  We  say  perhaps,  because  another 
view  is  puf  forward  by  Koelle  in  his  philosophical 
study  on  the  historical  position  of  Mohammedanism.2 
He  writes  : 

"  Mohammed,  from  his  low,  earthly  standing-point, 
could  neither  apprehend  the  unique  excellence  of  the 
character  of  Christ,  nor  the  real  nature  of  His  all-sufficient 
and  all-comprehending  salvation. 

"  Not  want  of  opportunity,  but  want  of  sympathy  and 
compatibility,  kept  him  aloof  from  the  religion  of  Christ. 
His  first  wife  introduced  him  to  her  Christian  cousin ; 
one  of  his  later  wives  had  embraced  Christianity  in 
Abyssinia,  and  the  most  favoured  of  his  concubines  was  a 
Christian  damsel  from  the  Copts  of  Egypt.  He  was 
acquainted  with  ascetic  monks,  and  had  dealings  with 
learned  Bishops  of  the  Orthodox  Church." 

Again,  Mohammed  was  not  ignorant  of  the  supreme 
importance  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Atonement.  Accord- 
ing to  a  well-known  tradition,  he  said  : 

"  I  saw  my  Lord  in  the  most  beautiful  form,  and  He 
said  unto  me,  '  O  Mohammed,  knowest  thou  on  what 
subject  the  highest  angels  contend  ?  '  I  answered,  '  Yes, 

1  Cf.  Rice,  Crusaders  of  the  Twentieth  Century,  p.  252. 

2  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism,  book  iii.  pp.  310,  334,  471. 


OF  THE  CROSS  239 

O  my  Lord,  on  the  subject  of  atonement,  that  is  to  say, 
on  the  services  and  degrees  which  are  the  cause  of  the 
atonement  of  sins.'  Thereupon  the  word  was  addressed 
to  me,  4  What  is  atonement  ?  '  I  answered,  '  Atonement 
is  the  remaining  in  the  house  of  prayer  after  the  service 
has  been  performed  ;  the  going  to  the  meetings  on  foot ; 
and  the  taking  an  ablution  when  trials  and  troubles  be- 
fall :  whoever  does  these  things  will  live  and  die  well, 
and  be  as  pure  from  sin  as  if  he  had  just  been  born  of  his 
mother.'  " 

Other  traditions  relate  how  Mohammed  explained 
some  of  the  pagan  sacrifices,  such  as  El  'Akeeka  and 
the  sacrifices  at  Mecca,  as  in  a  certain  sense  atoning 
for  sin.  So  the  doctrine  of  substitution  could 
not  in  itself  have  been  repugnant  to  him  (Mishkat 
xviii.  3). 

Whatever  the  explanation  may  be,  the  fact  remains 
that  Islam  from  its  origin  until  our  own  day  has  been 
an  enemy  of  the  Cross  of  Christ,  and  has  ever  made  the 
Crucifixion  a  cause  of  stumbling.  This  position,  once 
taken  by  orthodox  Islam,  has  been  held  throughout 
the  centuries.  The  historical  fact  of  Christ's  Cruci- 
fixion, with  all  it  signifies  to  Christianity,  has  always 
been  flatly  contradicted.  Only  among  the  Shiah 
sect  in  Persia  do  we  have  a  remarkable  illustration 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  and  of  substitution 
forcing  a  way  for  itself  into  Islam.  The  Aryan 
mind  was  never  content  with  the  barren  monotheistic 
idea  of  the  Semite  Arabs.  In  Persia,  the  doctrine 
of  an  incarnation,  of  intercessors,  and  of  salvation 
by  atonement,  found  eager  acceptance  at  an  early 
date.  Those  who  have  witnessed  the  Miracle  Play 
of  Hasan  and  Hussein,  commemorative  of  the  events 
at  Kerbela,  will  realise  how  large  a  place  this  death 
occupies  in  their  life  and  thought  as  a  propitiation 


240         THE  STUMBLING-BLOCK 

for  sin.     At  the  close  of  the  Miracle  Play  the  following 
words  are  put  into  the  mouth  of  Mohammed  : 

"  The  key  of  paradise  is  in  Hussein's  hand.  He  is 
the  mediator  for  all.  Go  thou  and  deliver  from  the 
flames  everyone  who  has  in  his  lifetime  shed  but  a  single 
tear  for  thee  :  everyone  who  has  in  any  way  helped  thee  ; 
everyone  who  has  performed  a  pilgrimage  to  thy  shrine 
or  mourned  for  thee.  Bear  each  and  all  to  paradise."  1 

In  presenting  this  doctrine  of  the  Atonement,  there- 
fore, to  Moslems  of  the  Shiah  sect,  the  story  of 
Kerbela  can  be  used  to  interpret  that  of  Calvary, 
and  finds  a  response.  At  the  Cairo  Missionary  Con- 
ference the  Rev.  S.  G.  Wilson,  of  Tabriz,  gave  this 
testimony  : 

"  When  we  are  setting  forth  the  story  of  the  Cross  to 
Persians,  they  often  reply,  '  In  like  manner  the  blood  of 
Imam  Hussein  avails  for  us  as  an  offering  to  God.'  This 
condition  of  belief  prepares  them  to  hear  and  understand 
the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Atonement.  It  can  be 
presented  to  them  as  to  a  Christian  audience." 

But  how  is  it  in  regard  to  orthodox  Islam  ?  Should 
we  emphasise  this  doctrine  of  the  Crucifixion  where  it 
is  bitterly  opposed  and  vigorously  disputed  ?  Would 
it  not  be  the  part  of  worldly  wisdom  and  of  missionary 
strategy  to  keep  the  Cross  and  the  Atonement  (as 
well  as  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity)  well  in  the  back- 
ground, and  present  to  Moslems  the  life  of  Christ 
rather  than  His  death  as  the  theme  of  our  Gospel  ? 
Shall  we  not  follow  the  discretion  (or  was  it  the  fear  ?) 
of  the  Sudan  authorities  in  the  matter  of  the  postage 
stamps,  and  remove  even  the  watermark  of  the  Cross 

1  Sir  Lewis  Pelly,  The  Miracle  Play  of  Hasan  and  Husain,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  343-348 ;  Matt.  Arnold,  Essays  in  Criticism,  vol.  i.  p.  264. 


OF  THE  CROSS  241 

from  our  preaching,  lest  we  offend  our  Moslem 
brethren  ?  Let  the  Apostle  Paul  give  us  the  answer, 
that  apostle  who  taught  "  that  no  man  should  put  a 
stumbling-block  in  his  brother's  way  or  an  occasion 
of  falling  "  ;  and  who  made  it  a  principle  of  his 
life  that,  "  if  meat  causeth  my  brother  to  stumble,  I 
will  eat  no  flesh  for  evermore,  that  I  cause  not  my 
brother  to  stumble."  His  reply  would  be  in  the 
words  he  wrote  to  the  disputers  of  this  world  :  "  Christ 
crucified,  unto  the  Jews  a  stumbling-block,  and  unto 
the  Greeks  foolishness." 

Paul  knew  that  the  Cross  was  a  stumbling-block, 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  Cross  foolishness  to  Jew  and 
Gentile,  and  yet  he  deliberately,  emphatically,  per- 
sistently, everywhere  made  his  mission  and  his 
message  the  Cross.  As  we  think  of  the  millions  in 
Moslem  lands  to  whom  our  hearts  go  out  in  sym- 
pathy— their  ignorance,  their  sinfulness,  their  utter 
need  of  the  Saviour — those  other  words  of  the  apostle 
find  new  meaning  :  "  For  many  walk  of  whom  I 
have  told  you  often,  and  now  tell  you  even  weeping, 
that  they  are  the  enemies  of  the  Cross  of  Christ." 
Let  us  never  on  that  account  consider  them  our 
enemies,  but  prove  to  them  that  we  are  their  friends 
by  showing  not  by  our  creed  only,  but  by  our  lives, 
the  power  of  the  Cross  and  its  glory.  We  must  meet 
this  earliest  and  latest  challenge  of  our  Moslem 
opponents  not  by  compromises  and  concessions,  nor 
by  the  cowardice  of  silence,  but  by  boldly  proclaiming 
that  the  very  heart  of  our  religion,  its  centre  and  its 
cynosure,  its  pivot  and  power,  is  the  atonement 
wrought  by  Christ  on  the  Cross.  We  must  show 
them  that  the  Cross  is  the  highest  expression  of  the 
very  Spirit  of  Christ ;  that,  as  Andrew  Murray  says, 
"  the  Cross  is  His  chief  characteristic ;  that  which 
16 


242     STUMBLING-BLOCK  OF  CROSS 

distinguishes  Him  from  all  in  heaven  and  on  earth  ; 
that  which  gives  Him  His  glory  as  Mediator  on  the 
throne  through  eternity."  If  faithfully,  fearlessly, 
sympathetically  we  preach  Christ  Crucified,  He  can 
make  the  stumbling-block  of  the  Cross  a  stepping- 
stone  for  the  Moslems  into  His  kingdom. 

There  is  no  other  way  into  that  Kingdom  than  the 
way  of  the  Cross.  Only  by  the  preaching  of  the 
Cross  can  we  expect  among  Moslems  conviction  of 
sin,  true  repentance,  and  faith  in  the  merits  of 
Another.  The  Cross,  and  the  Cross  alone,  can  break 
down  their  pride  and  self -righteousness,  and  lay  bare 
all  hypocrisy  and  self-deception.  More  than  this ; 
the  Cross  will  win  their  love  if  rightly  preached.  The 
Cross  is  the  very  antithesis  of  the  spirit  of  Islam, 
because  it  is  the  spirit  of  Christianity.  This  issue 
must  be  made  clear  at  the  very  outset,  for  it  is 
wrapped  up  in  every  other  truth  of  the  Christian 
religion.  Our  conclusion,  therefore,  can  find  no 
better  expression  than  in  the  words  of  Denney  : 

"  We  may  begin  as  wisely  as  we  please  with  those 
who  have  a  prejudice  against  it,  or  whose  conscience  is 
asleep,  or  who  have  much  to  learn  both  about  Christ  and 
about  themselves  before  they  will  consent  to  look  at  such 
a  Gospel,  to  say  nothing  of  abandoning  themselves  to  it ; 
but  if  we  do  not  begin  with  something  which  is  essentially 
related  to  the  Atonement,  presupposing  it  or  presupposed 
by  it  or  involved  in  it,  something  which  leads  inevitably, 
though  it  may  be  by  an  indirect  and  unsuspected  route, 
to  the  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world, 
we  have  not  begun  to  preach  the  Gospel  at  all."  l 
1  Denney,  The  Death  of  Christ,  p.  302. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE  PRESENT  ATTITUDE  OF  EDUCATED 
MOSLEMS  TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST  AND 
THE  SCRIPTURES 


248 


CHAPTER    XIV 

THE  PRESENT  ATTITUDE  OF  EDUCATED 
MOSLEMS  TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST  AND 
THE  SCRIPTURES 

PERHAPS  it  is  a  fair  estimate  to  say  that  from 
two  to  four  millions  of  the  total  Moslem  world 
population  have  so  far  adopted  Western  education 
and  broken  away  from  the  old  Islamic  standards  of 
orthodox  tradition  that  they  should  be  classified  as 
"  New  School  Moslems."  These  are  found  especi- 
ally in  India,  Egypt,  Turkey,  Algiers,  and  Persia. 
Not  all  of  them  have  adopted  Western  civilisation, 
but  Western  educational  methods  and  ideals  have 
compelled  them  to  restate  their  own  beliefs  or  doubts, 
and  to  modify  their  social  and  moral  standards  to 
such  an  extent  that  they  have  clearly  separated 
themselves  from  the  masses. 

Although  Moslem  education  still  divides  itself 
along  Western  and  Eastern  lines,  the  methods  and 
ideals  of  the  West  are  pushing  their  way  everywhere. 
Colonial  expansion  and  commercial  exploitation  in 
Africa  as  well  as  in  the  Mohammedan  lands  of  Asia 
by  the  marking  out  of  spheres  of  influence,  the 
building  of  the  railways,  the  growing  influence  of 
the  Moslem  press,  the  competition  as  well  as  the 
example  of  the  mission  schools — all  these  tend  to 
accelerate  this  movement  for  higher  education. 

245 


246        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

A  new  type  of  leadership  has  appeared  in  all 
Moslem  lands,  from  Morocco  to  Java.  They  are  the 
scouts  in  advance,  whom  the  bulk  of  the  community 
will  follow  with  more  or  less  hesitation  in  the  future. 
They  are  formulating  public  opinion,  advocating 
reforms,  and  preaching  the  power  and  possibility  of  a 
revived  Islam.  It  is  our  purpose  to  show  what  is 
the  present  attitude  of  these  Moslem  leaders  towards 
our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Scriptures.  This 
will  necessarily  involve  also  their  attitude  towards 
Christianity  and  the  work  of  Moslems. 

First  of  all  we  must  note  that  the  educated  Moslem 
of  to-day  has  supreme  confidence  in  himself,  and 
therefore  pride  is  his  religion,  and  a  hope,  in  spite  of 
all  political  disasters  or  racial  and  social  disadvantages, 
that  Islam  will  yet  triumph. 

Mr.  S.  Khuda  Bukhsh,  in  his  remarkable  book, 
Essays,  Indian  and  Islamic,  recently  published, 
says  : 

"  Islam  possesses  an  inherent  force  and  vitality  which 
nothing  can  weaken  or  destroy.  It  carries  within  it 
germs  of  progress  and  development,  and  has  great  powers 
of  adaptability  to  changing  circumstances.  There  is 
nothing  in  its  teachings  which  conflicts  with  or  militates 
against  modern  civilisation,  and  the  moment  Muslims 
realise  this  truth  their  future  will  be  assured  and  their 
greatness  only  a  question  of  time.  Modern  Islam,  with  its 
hierarchy  of  priesthood,  gross  fanaticism,  appalling  ignor- 
ance and  superstitious  practices,  is,  indeed,  a  discredit 
to  the  Islam  of  the  Prophet  Mohammed.  Instead  of 
unity,  we  have  Islam  torn  into  factions,  instead  of  culture 
we  have  indifference  to  learning,  instead  of  liberal-minded 
toleration  we  have  gross  bigotry.  But  this  intellectual 
darkness  must  necessarily  be  followed  by  intellectual 
dawn,  and  we  trust  that  it  is  not  now  far  distant  or  too 
long  in  coming"  (pp.  23,  24). 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST       247 

The  educated  Moslem  is  able  to  diagnose  the  world 
of  Islam  and  sees  clearly  that  it  is  sick  nigh  unto 
death.  No  writer  has  ever  written  more  frankly 
concerning  the  ignorance,  superstition,  degradation, 
and  social  evils  of  the  Moslem  world  than  has  Mr. 
Khuda  Bukhsh  in  his  Essays. 

44  Look  at  the  state  of  affairs  a  little  deeper,"  he 
writes.  4t  What  must  we  say  of  a  society  which 
transforms  licentiousness  into  elegant  fraility,  and 
treachery  and  falsehood  into  pardonable  finesse  ? 
Should  we  not  combat,  with  all  our  might,  these 
social  evils  which  are  sapping  the  very  life  and 
vitality  out  of  our  community  ?  Are  these  not 
problems  calling  for  attention  and  solution  ?  I  am 
drawing  up  (I  am  only  too  keenly  aware  of  it)  a 
severe  indictment  against  my  own  community,  but 
we  need  have  no  delicacy  any  longer  if  we  are  to 
proceed  onward.  We  want  no  palliatives,  but  the 
surgeon's  knife  to  cut  the  cancer — social  cancer — 
away." 

And  all  these  evils  which  he  mentions  he  tells  us 
are  the  direct,  or  indirect,  outcome  44  of  our  defective 
family  life,  where  liberty  is  indistinguishable  from 
licence,  and  healthy  vigilance  from  meaningless 
conventionalism. ' ' 

Moslem  children,  he  tells  us,  are  brought  up  "  in  a 
poisonous  atmosphere."  "  Polygamy  is  destructive, 
alike  of  domestic  peace  and  social  purity." 

In  India  the  state  of  Islam  is  so  sad  that  the  Hindu 
excels  the  Mohammedan  44  in  thrift  and  self-control, 
in  capacity  for  work,  in  family  devotion,  in  temper- 
ance, and  in  sacrifice  for  education." 

His  conclusion  is  that  among  Moslems  44  religion 
has  now  become  a  solemn  farce  stripped  of  spiritual 
truth  and  steeped  in  barren  tradition  and  practice," 


248        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

and  that  "  the  very  foundations  of  our  belief  and 
conduct  need  to  be  reconstructed."  x 

We  have  quoted  at  length  from  this  writer  because 
he  is  not  alone.  The  Moslem  press  in  Calcutta, 
Teheran,  Cairo,  Baghdad,  Constantinople,  and  Algiers 
has  given  similar  testimony.  Kasim  Amin  Bey  in 
his  plea  for  the  emancipation  of  the  womanhood  of 
Egypt  was  followed  by  Mansour  Fahmy  in  his 
recent  book  on  the  condition  of  women  in  Islam. 
Gasprinsky  is  attempting  from  Russia  to  reform 
Moslem  education  in  India  and  in  Persia. 

The  backward  state  of  the  Moslem  world  and  its 
present  degradation  is  to  the  educated  Moslem  a 
cause  of  sorrow  and  a  source  of  constant  pain.  Abdul 
Kareem  Moondji,  of  the  Supreme  Court,  Singapore, 
wrote  to  the  Spectator  (May  2nd,  1914)  as  follows  : 

'  ...  If  Moslems  choose  to  confine  themselves  only  to 
lip  profession  of  their  religion,  with  resulting  disintegra- 
tion, decadence  and  stagnancy,  the  fault  as  well  as  the 
blame  is  theirs,  and  should  by  no  means  be  cast  upon 
their  faith.  If  Islam  as  practised  by  Moslems  does  indeed 
seem  hidebound,  deficient  in  progress,  this  characteristic, 
Sir,  is  one  that  has  been  assumed  and  adopted,  not 
inherent  in,  nor  native  to  it.  Except  in  India,  Islam  has 
not  yet  come  into  touch  with  Protestantism,  with  its 
attendant  freedom  from  dogmatic  trammels.  Its  anta- 
gonists and  neighbours  have  been  either  the  Roman 
Catholic  form  of  worship  or  the  Greek  one,  and  the  evils 
in  Islam  are  but  the  evils  in  these  two  other  faiths  which  it 
has  assimilated  and  absorbed.  To  assert  that  the  religion 
of  the  Koran  is  inelastic,  adverse  to  progress,  would  be  to 
deny,  to  shut  one's  eyes  voluntarily  to  the  state  of  Islam 
during  its  first  infancy  and  adolescence.  To  what  was 
due  the  past  greatness  of  Islam  but  to  the  progressive, 
reformative,  and  assimilative  spirit  that  distinguished 
1  Pp.  215,  216,  228,  235. 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST       249 

that  religion  ?  You,  Sir,  and  such  as  you,  should  least 
of  all  other  men  be  prone  to  lend  your  pen  to  the  stock 
objections  to  Islam  that  form  the  windy  paraphernalia 
of  narrow-minded  Christian  clergymen,  fortified  by  their 
fanatic  folly." 

We  may  well  sympathise  with  the  educated  Moslem 
of  to-day.  The  impact  of  the  West  through  trade, 
governments,  and  education,  has  utterly  changed  old 
social  standards,  practices,  and  ideals.  The  old 
Islam  is  disintegrating.  No  one  can  arrest  the  pro- 
cess. And  they  are  aware  of  it. 

The  new  Islam  is  anxious  to  incorporate  all  the 
progress  and  ideals  of  Western  civilisation  by  a 
reinterpretation  of  the  Koran.  Some  even  attempt 
to  prove  that  Islam  was  not  propagated  by  the 
sword,  that  slavery  was  only  a  temporary  institution, 
and  that  polygamy  was  not  permitted  by  the  Prophet 
Mahommed — in  fact,  that  he  himself  was  not  really 
a  polygamist.  These  feats  of  exegesis  would  be 
ridiculous  if  they  were  not  pathetic.  All  educated 
Moslems  are  abandoning  the  traditions  and  taking 
refuge  in  the  Koran  for  a  final  stand  against  Chris- 
tianity if  it  be  possible.  We  may  thank  God  that 
the  character  of  the  Prophet  is  becoming  a  stumbling- 
block  to  all  earnest  thinkers,  and  there  are  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  Mohammedans  whose  social  and 
moral  ideals  are  higher  than  those  of  Mohammed 
himself.  Could  there  be  a  stronger  call  than  this  for 
us  to  present  to  them  the  reality  of  the  living  Christ, 
Who  is  at  once  the  ideal  of  character,  and  its  creator, 
its  author,  and  its  finisher  ? 

Popular  education,  both  under  Government  super- 
vision and  through  the  effort  and  example  of  Christian 
missions,  as  well  as  the  enormous  influence  of  the 


250        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

Moslem  press,  is  spreading  these   new  ideas  every- 
where. 
As  quoted  before,  a  missionary  in  Java  writes  : 

"  What  the  future  of  the  movement  towards  popular 
government  will  be  no  one  can  say,  but  it  is  certain  that 
within  the  past  year  greater  changes  have  come  into 
the  minds  of  the  Javanese  than  in  the  past  twenty-five 
years.  We  stand  before  a  new  epoch.  Will  it  be  favour- 
able for  the  spread  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jesus  Christ  ? 
It  is  a  call  to  persevering  prayer  that  Java  in  its  present 
awakening  may  not  only  desire  education  and  true 
nationalism,  but  also  that  salvation  which  is  only  in  Jesus 
Christ  our  Lord." 

There  is  no  doubt  that  in  social  reform,  policy, 
education,  and  all  the  ideals  of  democracy,  educated 
Moslems  are  our  allies  and  not  our  enemies.  They 
are  as  anxious  as  are  the  missionaries  for  the  uplifting 
and  enlightenment  of  the  masses,  although  their  efforts 
are  spasmodic.  They  are  not  unconscious  of  the 
need  for  this  uplifting  and  enlightenment.  Most  of 
them  are  ardent  admirers  of  much  that  they  consider 
the  best  in  Western  civilisation.  But,  alas !  too  few 
of  their  number  are  ready  for  a  life  of  self-denying 
service  to  help  others  reach  the  goal  which  they 
admire. 

The  nationalist  journal  Es-Sha'ab  recently  had  a 
series  of  articles  by  the  President  of  the  Mohammedan 
Association  for  the  Revival  of  Islam  in  Egypt.  His 
contention  was  that  the  Koran  contained  all  the 
principles  of  modern  civilisation  and  progress  ;  that 
modern  science  has  borrowed  much  from  the  Koran, 
and  that  in  this  book  we  have  foretold  modern 
discoveries  in  embryology,  natural  history,  and 
sociology. 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST       251 

But  the  fundamental  question  always  remains.  It 
is  the  crux  of  the  Moslem  problem — not  what  they 
think  of  Western  civilisation,  or  of  its  representatives, 
but  what  they  think  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  how  they 
regard  the  Bible  and  Christianity. 

In  presenting  the  subject  we  quote  at  some  length 
from  the  Moslem  press  and  from  recent  books  by 
educated  Moslems,  mindful  of  the  words  spoken  to 
Gideon:  "Thou  shalt  hear  what  they  say,  and 
afterward  shall  thine  hands  be  strengthened  to  go 
down  unto  the  host." 

Educated  Moslems  are  fully  aware  of  the  impending 
conflict  between  Christianity  and  Islam,  and  of  the 
issues  at  stake.  In  speaking  of  the  results  of  mis- 
sionary preaching  under  the  heading  of  "  Islam  and 
its  Enemies,"  a  Cairo  newspaper,  Es-Sha'ab,  wrote  : 

"  A  proof  of  the  extent  of  preaching  in  the  mission 
schools  is  the  fact  that  you  cannot  find  two  Moslem 
children  one  of  whom  is  taught  in  a  Moslem  school  and  the 
other  in  a  Christian  school,  but  you  see  them  quarrelling 
in  the  street  on  such  a  question  as  this  :  Who  is  the 
greatest,  the  Messiah  or  Mohammed  ?  and  very  probably 
both  of  them  are  the  sons  of  one  pious  Moslem.  The 
other  day  while  I  was  reclining  in  my  house  I  heard  a 
quarrel  in  the  street  between  a  boy  and  a  girl.  A  negro 
servant  was  helping  the  boy  in  his  argument.  The  boy 
was  crying  4  Christ  is  not  greater  than  Mohammed,' 
but  the  girl  replied,  4  Teacher  told  us  that  Christ  was 
greater  than  Mohammed  and  all  other  creatures,  for  He 
saved  men  from  their  sins.'  When  they  came  to  me,  I 
made  clear  to  the  girl  that  her  brother  was  in  the  right 
and  she  in  the  wrong." 

There  are  some  who  hope  for  compromise  and 
reconciliation.  Presiding  at  a  lecture  on  "  The 
Gospel  of  Islam,"  delivered  by  Zari  Sarfaraz  Hussein, 


252        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

of  Delhi,  in  London,  the  Hon.  Syed  Ameer  Ali  said 
that  for  more  than  forty  years  he  had  been  trying  to 
bring  about  an  understanding  between  Christianity 
and  Islam,  and  he  believed  that  to  some  extent  he 
had  removed  the  false  impressions  in  the  West  re- 
garding the  latter  religion.  He  saw  no  reason  why 
Christianity  and  Islam  should  not  work  together  in 
the  elevation  of  the  human  world  ;  they  worshipped 
the  same  God,  had  the  same  traditions  and  ideals, 
and  did  not  differ  in  their  moral  standards  ! 

But  the  majority  of  educated  Moslems  know  their 
own  religion  better,  and  know  at  least  the  funda- 
mental teachings  of  Christianity ;  they  therefore 
have  little  sympathy  with  efforts  at  compromise. 
The  Review  of  Religions  (Qadian)  put  the  issue 
clearly  in  stating  that 

"  Islam  and  Christianity  lie  at  the  parting  of  the 
ways,  Islam  being  the  very  antithesis  of  Christianity, 
and  deprecates  the  fact  that  here  and  there  attempts  are 
being  made  in  India  to  show  that  the  Holy  Koran  supports 
the  alleged  claims  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  to  Godhood. 
Chapters  and  verses  are  quoted  from  Moslem  books  by 
some  of  the  misguided  and  ignorant  Christian  mission- 
aries to  show  that  Islam  represents  Jesus  as  the  highest 
embodiment  of  human  excellence.  Some  of  them  even 
go  to  the  length  of  declaring  that  the  Holy  Koran  lends 
itself  to  the  deifying  of  Jesus.  .  .  .  The  Christian  mis- 
sionaries have  been  misled  by  the  Mohammedan  reverence 
for  Jesus  into  the  notion  that  Islam  represents  Jesus  as 
being  superior  to  the  rest  of  mankind.  It  is  true  that  they 
have  been  regarding  him  as  one  of  the  prophets  of  God, 
who  come  at  times  to  regenerate  the  world,  and  who  in 
that  capacity  deserve  our  utmost  reverence.  But  to 
expect  from  the  Moslems  anything  more  than  this  would  be 
to  ignore  their  feelings  and  sentiments  altogether." 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST        253 

"  Of  course,"  said  the  Comrade  of  Calcutta  in  an 
editorial,  "  there  is  no  neutrality  between  the  two, 
at  least  not  between  the  Unity  of  Islam  and  the 
Trinity  of  the  Nicene  Creed.  No  Mussulman  could 
indeed  wish  for  neutrality.  One  or  the  other  must 
conquer,  and  the  Mussulman  is  sure  in  his  mind 
which  it  is  going  to  be." 

The  more  Moslems  become  acquainted  with 
Christianity,  the  more  they  read  the  New  Testament, 
the  more  they  will  see  that  the  issues  between  the 
Cross  and  the  Crescent  are  clearly  drawn,  and  are  too 
deep  and  vital,  both  in  the  realm  of  truth  and  of  ethics, 
ever  to  admit  of  compromise. 

We  may  therefore  expect  that  the  enormous 
increase  of  the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  in  all 
Moslem  lands  in  recent  years  will  inevitably  lead 
to  the  keener  opposition  and  produce  hostility  as 
well  as  remove  prejudice.  Jesus  Christ  is  always  set 
for  the  falling  and  the  rising  of  many,  and  for  a 
sign  which  is  spoken  against. 

But  there  is  a  willingness  rather  than  an  eagerness 
to  investigate  the  claims  of  Jesus  Christ  and  His  place 
in  history  such  as  there  never  was  before.  The 
Moslems  themselves  are  choosing  the  Bible  as  their 
battle-ground.  For  obvious  reasons  all  educated 
Moslems  have  abandoned  their  defence  of  the 
Traditions — or  are  trying  hard  to  sift  them  or  shift 
them  to  suit  their  purpose.  They  even  prefer  at 
present  to  attack  the  Scriptures  or  re-interpret  them 
in  favour  of  Islam,  rather  than  make  any  appeal  to 
the  Koran  as  the  very  word  of  Allah.  This  is  a  new 
phase  in  the  present  situation,  and  one  full  of  promise. 
The  word  of  God  is  living  and  powerful ;  it  is  a  two- 
edged  sword,  and  those  who  attempt  to  wrest  it 
from  Christian  hands  will  only  wound  themselves. 


254        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

Two  Moslem  tracts  widely  circulated  in  Cairo  this 
past  year  are  entitled,  "If  ye  love  Me,  keep  My 
Commandments,"  and  "  A  true  Statement  of  the 
Love  of  Christ."  Both  are  bitterly  anti-Christian, 
and  contain  blasphemous  statements ;  but  while 
they  make  no  reference  to  the  Koran,  or  quotations 
from  it,  they  are  full  of  Bible  proof  texts.  The  latter 
closes  with  the  entire  beautiful  parable  of  the  House 
built  on  the  Rock  (Matt.  vii.  24-27),  while  on  the 
title-page  are  the  words,  "  Jesus  the  Nazarene,  Who 
was  a  prophet  mighty  in  deed  and  word  before  God 
and  all  the  people."  Whatever  may  be  the  other 
effects  of  this  kind  of  polemic,  it  undoubtedly  stimu- 
lates the  searching  of  the  Scriptures  and  rivets 
attention  on  Jesus  Christ. 

Not  long  ago  the  leading  Moslem  paper  published 
at  Baghdad  had  a  long  article  on  the  injustice  of 
Italy's  invasion  of  Tripoli,  and  the  main  argument 
was  based  on  all  the  prophecies  of  Messianic  peace 
found  in  the  Old  Testament  and  the  commands  of 
Jesus  to  love  our  enemies.  Recently  a  tramway 
conductor  in  Alexandria,  to  whom  I  gave  a  Christian 
leaflet,  returned  the  favour  by  handing  me  a  small 
poster  entitled,  "  The  Gospel  Witness  to  the  prophet- 
ship  of  Mohammed  " — most  of  it  a  clever  perversion 
of  Scripture  texts  especially  from  the  16th  chapter 
of  St.  John's  Gospel,  the  promise  of  the  Paraclete. 

While,  on  the  one  hand,  there  is  this  free  and  utterly 
uncritical  use  of  the  Bible,  educated  Moslems  are, 
on  the  other  hand,  eager  to  prove  by  modern  Western 
authorities  that  their  old  contention  that  the  text  was 
corrupted  is  supported  by  Christians  themselves. 
Mr.  Halil  Halid,  a  licentiate  of  the  Institute  of  Law 
at  Constantinople,  said  in  his  book,  The  Crescent 
versus  the  Cross  (pp.  12,  13) : 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST        255 

"  A  study  of  the  historical  investigations  made  by  the 
unbiassed  critics  of  Christendom  will  strengthen  rather 
than  weaken  the  old  notion  of  Mussalmans  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  existing  Holy  Book  of  the  Christians  .  .  . 
it  certainly  should  not  be  offered  to  the  world  as  the 
Gospel  of  a  true  religion." 

The  infamous  Arabic  book  of  Mohammed  Tahir 
Tanir,  of  Beirut,  on  the  Pagan  Elements  in  the 
Christian  Religion  (October  1913  and  July  1914), 
and  the  far  more  able  work  by  Mohammed  Tewfik 
Sidki,  of  Cairo,  entitled,  El-Nazra,  are  both  intended 
to  show  that  the  foundations  of  the  Christian  religion 
are  not  only  unhistorical,  but  mythical.  They  refer 
and  quote  from  a  number  of  Western  writers,  some 
of  whom  are  without  authority  and  others  anti- 
Christian. 

The  whole  object  in  view  in  these  replies  or  counter- 
attacks always  seems  to  be,  not  to  search  for  truth, 
nor  to  use  the  method  of  scientific  or  even  of  destruc- 
tive criticism,  but  to  find  an  apology  for  Islam  at 
any  cost.  Otherwise  how,  for  example,  could  a 
Cambridge  graduate  write  : 

44  Islam  also  holds  different  views  on  the  death  of 
Christ;  whether  historically  correct  or  not,  it  does  not 
admit  the  possibility  of  the  crucifixion  ...  it  cannot 
reconcile  his  lofty  position  with  the  alleged  form  of  his 
death,  a  form  which  to  the  Moslem  mind  only  befits 
criminals  "  (The  Crescent  versus  the  Cross,  p.  17). 

We  might  say  that  this  changed  attitude  towards 
the  Scriptures  is  from  that  of  a  proud  indifference 
and  a  fanatic  ignorance  of  their  contents  to  an  eager 
desire  to  investigate  and  refute  the  Bible  if  in  any 
way  possible,  or  at  least  to  use  it  as  a  new  weapon  of 
defence  for  Islam  and  of  attack  on  Christianity. 


256        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

This  apparently  impossible  position  is  the  only 
logical  one  if  the  Moslem  would  remain  a  Moslem. 
The  educated  Moslem  faces  two  great  difficulties  in 
his  comparative  study  of  religion  ;  the  character  of 
Mohammed  in  history  according  to  Moslem  writers, 
and  the  witness  of  the  Koran  to  the  integrity  and 
inspiration  of  the  Bible.  He  is  compelled  by  his 
religion,  therefore,  to  believe  that  which,  if  logically 
followed  out  to  its  conclusion,  will  undermine  the 
foundation  of  his  belief. 

The  Comrade  of  Calcutta  (May  30th,  1914)  frankly 
admitted  this  difficulty  : 

"  The  Christian  theologian  can  denounce  the  Koran 
as  a  fabrication  and  a  fraud,  but  the  Mussulman,  although 
he  may  allege  interpolations  in  the  Biblical  text,  is  pre- 
vented by  his  own  religious  belief  from  denying  the  Divine 
origin  of  the  Christian  Scriptures.  Similarly,  a  Christian 
may  call  the  prophet  of  Islam  an  impostor,  and  an  evil 
person,  but  a  Mussulman's  religion  imposes  upon  him 
respect  for  the  personality  and  character  of  Jesus  Christ 
as  a  Messenger  of  God." 

We  shall  see  later  how  this  difficulty  regarding  the 
character  of  the  Prophet  and  that  of  the  Christ  has 
given  rise  to  new  and  startling  attacks  on  the  sinless- 
ness  of  Jesus. 

This  abiding  witness  of  the  Koran  to  the  Scriptures, 
the  colporteur  with  his  insistent  presentation  of  the 
printed  Gospel,  the  daily  Bible  teaching  in  thousands 
of  mission  schools,  and  not  least,  the  place  this  Book 
occupies  in  Western  literature  and  thought, — all 
join  in  compelling  the  educated  Moslem  to  become  a 
Bible  student. 

He  is  also  driven  to  study  the  present  religious 
condition  of  the  Christian  world,  and  to  compare 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST       257 

it  favourably  or  unfavourably  with  that  of  the  world 
of  Islam,  often  appealing  to  the  Bible  as  the  standard 
of  his  new  ethics  to  condemn  the  worst  side  of  Western 
civilisation.  His  new  horizon  is  world- wide.  With 
the  sensitiveness  and  the  rapidity  (sometimes  without 
the  accuracy)  of  a  seismograph,  the  Moslem  press 
in  Constantinople  and  Cairo,  in  Algiers  and  Calcutta, 
records  every  event  even  at  the  antipodes  that 
concerns  Islam,  however  remotely. 

The  World  Missionary  Conference  at  Edinburgh 
was  reported  at  some  length  in  the  leading  Moslem 
paper  of  Cairo.  Translations  of  missionary  literature 
published  in  New  York  appear  in  the  Lahore  daily 
papers.  Nothing  that  happens  in  Europe  and 
which  seems  to  reflect  on  Christian  civilisation 
escapes  the  Moslem  press.  The  feminist  movement, 
the  Suffragette  extravagances,  a  diplomatic  dis- 
closure or  a  speech  of  the  German  Emperor,  American 
divorce  scandals,  the  social  evils  of  Paris  or  of 
Liverpool,  all  are  served  up  to  Moslem  readers  with 
the  moral :  "  Such  is  Christianity,  and  such  is  the 
programme  of  Christian  Europe." 

The  information  is  often,  we  admit,  inaccurate  or 
even  grotesque  in  its  character.  The  paper  called 
the  El-Afkar,  for  example  (Cairo,  March  22nd,  1914), 
had  a  long  article  by  a  Persian  Moslem  on  the  subject, 
14  The  Impact  of  the  Missionaries  upon  the  Moslem 
World,"  in  which  he  gave  an  exaggerated  account 
of  the  strength  of  Protestant  missions,  quoting  from 
a  French  periodical  that  the  Protestants  spent  unheard 
of  sums  of  gold  in  the  spread  of  the  Gospel.  From 
Canada  and  America  a  total  of  two  and  a  half  million 
pounds  yearly,  exclusive  of  what  comes  from  Eng- 
land and  Australia.  He  estimates  the  total  spent  on 
foreign  missions  by  Protestant  missions  at  thirteen 
17 


258        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

million  pounds,  and  the  total  force  of  missionaries, 
European  and  native,  at  five  and  a  half  million. 
Of  these  "  ninety-three  thousand  men  and  women  are 
specially  set  apart  to  engage  in  the  distribution  of 
the  Bible  !  " 

The  Conference  at  Kikuyu  held  almost  as  large  a 
place  in  the  Moslem  press  recently  as  it  did  in  Eng- 
land. Long  articles  indicated  how  educated  Moslems 
saw  good  or  ill  for  Islam  in  this  attempted  Christian 
union.  One  paper  remarked  : 

"  The  pious  fraud  engineered  in  the  Protestant  meeting 
at  Kikuyu  is  too  glaring  to  hoodwink  even  a  superficial 
eye.  The  Protestant  sects  are  notoriously  divided  from 
each  other  by  difference  of  belief  of  the  most  fundamental 
character.  Do  all  Protestants  even  believe  in  the  Trinity  ? 
Many  of  them  are  Unitarians  almost  like  non-Christian 
religions.  Do  they  believe  in  one  common  baptism  ? 
Some  hold  that  baptism  is  only  harmless  water,  some  that 
it  removes  all  sins,  some  that  it  should  be  given  to  children, 
some  that  it  must  be  reserved  for  people  of  full  age.  Do 
all  of  them  believe  in  the  Communion  of  Saints  ?  Many 
of  them  believe  it  in  all  sorts  of  different  meanings. 
Some  hold  that  Christians  on  earth  can  pray  to  Christians 
who  are  dead  on  behalf  of  other  Christians  expired. 
Others  deny  this,  and  believe  that  no  one  here  or  here- 
after can  know  or  do  anything  whatsoever  with  one 
another.  Do  they  believe  in  '  the  One  Catholic  Church  J 
which  they  pretended  at  Kikuyu  to  be  a  universal  article 
of  their  '  unity  of  faith  '  ?  On  the  other  hand,  very  few 
of  them  believe  in  One  Catholic  Church  of  any  kind 
whatsoever.  Do  they  believe  in  the  remission  of  sins  ? 
Most  of  them  do  not ;  and  those  who  say  they  do  have  very 
different  ideas  on  the  subject.  Must  a  Protestant  priest 
or  bishop  be  consecrated  in  regular  succession  by  previous 
bishops  ?  Can  any  layman  without  any  consecration 
by  bishops  become  a  priest  or  minister  and  teach  out  of 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST       259 

the  Sacred  Scripture.  On  these  points,  too,  there  is 
nothing  but  contradiction  among  the  Protestant  de- 
nominations represented  at  Kikuyu." 

All  of  which  shows  that  Christianity  is  not  only 
under  fire,  but  that  Moslems  are  fully  aware  that  our 
lack  of  unity  is  a  real  lack  of  strength. 

The  criticism  of  missions  by  the  Moslem  press  does 
not  prevent  an  increasing  imitation  of  modern  mis- 
sionary methods  in  the  defence  and  spread  of  Islam. 
Moslem  societies  are  being  formed  throughout  India 
and  Egypt  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  checking 
the  influence  of  missions,  preventing  attendance  at 
Christian  meetings,  and  persuading  converts  to  return 
to  Islam.  I  have  before  me  the  constitution  and 
by-laws  of  one  such  society  founded  last  year,  with 
headquarters  in  Alexandria.  It  has  officers,  com- 
mittees, branches,  two  kinds  of  membership  (honorary 
and  active  by  the  payment  of  at  least  a  shilling 
monthly),  and  an  ambitious  programme.  The  recent 
efforts  of  Khwaja  Kamal-ud-Din  and  his  supporters 
in  Woking,  England,  "  to  spread  Islam  in  Europe,  or 
at  least  refute  the  baseless  charges  brought  against 
Islam,"  are  generally  known  through  his  publications. 
What  is  not  so  well  known  is  that  women's  missionary 
societies  are  being  formed  in  India  to  finance  the 
scheme  (the  Comrade,  May  9th,  1914,  p.  377). 

We  now  turn  to  the  heart  of  the  problem.  What 
is  the  present  attitude  of  educated  Moslems  towards 
Jesus  Christ  our  Lord  and  Saviour  ?  It  is  twofold. 
On  the  one  hand,  although  this  attitude  is  utterly 
opposed  to  the  spirit  and  teachings  of  the  Koran 
itself,  there  are  bitter  and  blasphemous  attacks  on 
the  supernatural  character  of  Jesus  and  His  sinless- 
ness.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  unexpected  and 


260        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

outspoken  testimony  to  His  moral  greatness  and  the 
effect  of  His  teaching  and  life  in  transforming  character. 
Seyid  Mohammed  Rashid  Ridha,  the  editor  of  El- 
Manar,  Mohammed  Tewfik  Sidki,  both  of  Cairo, 
Mohammed  Tahir-ut-Tanir,  of  Beirut,  a  certain 
section  of  the  press  in  India,  and  the  authors  of  some 
of  the  pamphlets  published  by  the  Mohammedan 
Tract  and  Book  Depot  at  Lahore,  are  the  leading 
exponents  of  the  new  hostile  polemic. 

Much  of  what  has  appeared  in  print,  both  in  English 
and  Arabic,  in  India  and  in  Egypt,  is  of  such  degrading 
character  and  so  utterly  unworthy  of  educated  and 
honest  Moslems  that  we  are  not  surprised  that  when 
it  was  published  in  Cairo  the  editor  of  El-Manar 
was  constrained  to  publish  an  apology  after  the 
offence  ;  and  in  India  it  was  described  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  as  "  wantonly  scurrilous  and  offensive." 
Two  of  the  Indian  newspapers  in  question,  Ahl- 
i-Hadith  and  Badr,  were  dealt  with  under  the  Press 
Act  in  June  1914  for  publishing  their  blasphemous 
articles  on  the  Birth  of  the  Messiah.  The  latter 
paper  quoted  from  another  Moslem  sheet  An-Najm, 
a  long  pseudo-scientific  account  of  the  alleged  natural- 
ness of  the  virgin  birth  on  the  absurd  theory  (which 
was  fortified  by  a  Koran  text)  "  that  Mary  was  a 
true  hermaphrodite." 

The  Comrade  reprinted  the  greater  part  of  this 
offensive  article  (June  6th,  1914),  and  expressed  sur- 
prise at  the  opinion  of  Sir  Michael  O'Dwyer  that  "  it 
was  calculated  to  bring  into  contempt  the  Christian 
population  of  the  province."  Referring  to  the  other 
paper,  Ahl-i-Hadith,  the  Comrade  goes  on  to  prove 
that  Moslem  writers  can  say  what  they  please  re- 
garding the  character  of  Jesus,  provided  th&y  use 
as  the  object  of  their  accusations  and  blasphemies 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST        261 

"  the  Jesus  of  the  Gospel  "  and  not  the  "  Isa  of  the 
Koran."     The  editor  writes  : 

"  Let  us  now  see  whether  the  writer  in  the  Ahl-i- 
Hadith  has  done  anything  more  reprehensible  in  dealing 
with  Christ's  sinfulness  or  sinlessness  according  to  the 
law.  Once  more  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  writer 
is  not  dealing  with  Jesus  as  the  Mussulmans  know  and 
venerate  him,  but  with  the 4  Jesus  of  the  Gospel.'  What  he 
does  is  to  quote  texts  from  the  Gospels  and,  whether  one 
agrees  with  his  interpretation  or  not,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  texts  can  be  interpreted  in  a  manner  which  do 
not  do  justice  to  so  great  and  holy  a  personality.  The 
well-known  text  in  Matthew,  4 1  come  not  to  send  peace 
but  a  sword,'  etc.,  can  easily  bear  an  interpretation 
wholly  different  from  that  which  Christians  accept,  and 
we  have  no  doubt  that  if  an  Indian  patriot  used  such 
expressions  to-day  the  police  would  have  something  to 
say  to  him,  and  the  authorities  of  our  colleges  would 
certainly  hold  up  the  man  who  boasted  that  he  had  come 
4  to  set  a  man  against  his  father '  to  public  opprobrium 
in  the  interests  of  discipline.  Take  Christ's  abuse  of  the 
Pharisees  and  Scribes  as  '  an  evil  and  adulterous  genera- 
tion,' and  a  '  generation  of  vipers.'  We  know  what  the 
Pharisees  and  Scribes  were  like  in  the  days  of  Christ ; 
but  we  have  no  Pharisees  and  Scribes  among  us  now  who 
can  count  on  the  support  of  officialdom  when  '  Young 
hot-heads  '  call  them  by  names  not  half  so  abusive." 

"  Again,  Christ  accused  the  prophets  who  had 
preceded  him  of  being  thieves  and  robbers."  The 
writer  quotes  other  passages  and  offers  a  running 
criticism  of  unequal  merit,  and  finally  cites  Matt, 
xix.  17 :  "  And  He  said  unto  him,  Why  callest  thou 
Me  good  ?  There  is  none  good  but  one — that  is 
God."  So  much  for  "Jesus  of  the  Gospel."  But 
what  of  Jesus  as  the  writer  believes  Him  to  be  ? 


262        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

Does  he  consider  Him  to  be  a  disturber  of  peace  and 
a  man  given  to  abuse  of  others,  an  ungrateful  son  or 
a  brother  without  affection,  the  author  of  vain  pro- 
phecies and  a  teacher  of  dissembling,  fond  of  loving 
women  who  were  not  related  to  him,  and  of  wine- 
drinking,  as,  according  to  him,  the  texts  cited  by 
him  suggest  ?  Let  us  give  the  reply  in  his  own 
words.  He  concludes  the  peccant  article  with  the 
following : 

"  In  short,  according  to  the  decision  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  Jesus  was  sinful  by  'origin  and  according 
to  law.  If  he  was  sinful  he  cannot  atone  for  the  sins  of 
others,  according  to  the  Christian  teachings.  So  Jesus 
can  in  no  way  carry  away  the  sins  of  all  Christians. 
Christian  friends,  give  up  this  unbecoming  and  fanciful 
idea  of  Atonement,  and  believe  in  the  Holy  Book,  which 
in  a  few  but  portentous  words  calls  "  Jesus,  son  of 
Mary,"  illustrious  in  this  world  and  the  world  to 
come '  "— 

Another  writer  of  this  polemic  school  informs  us 
that  Jesus  died  young,  and  was  crucified  because  He 
was  rude  to  the  "  mother  who  kept  awake  for  nights 
that  he  might  sleep,  who  many  a  time  went  without 
meals  that  he  might  eat,  and  bore  trouble  that  he 
might  rest  in  comfort."  Does  not  the  Bible  say, 
"  Honour  thy  father  and  mother,  that  thy  days  may 
be  long,"  and  does  not  Matthew  tell  us  that  "  Jesus 
said  unto  her,  Woman,  what  have  I  to  do  with  you  ?  " 

With  still  greater  effrontery  one  of  the  pamphlets 
published  at  Lahore  speaks  of  the  marriage  at  Cana 
in  Galilee  and  of  other  events  in  His  life  : 

"  Jesus  also  insulted  his  mother  on  this  occasion,  and 
the  apology  that  he  was  then  under  the  influence  of  wine 
cannot  excuse  him,  for  on  another  occasion  (Matt.  xii.  48), 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST        263 

when  to  all  appearance  in  a  sober  state,  he  behaved  even 
more  rudely  towards  her.  Another  miracle  wrought  by 
Jesus  was  that  of  cursing  the  fig  tree.  Pinched  by 
hunger  (a  hungry  God  was  never  known  before  the  advent 
of  Jesus)  he  ran  to  a  fig  tree;  but,  poor  hunger-bitten 
God,  he  did  not  know  that  4  the  time  of  the  figs  was  not 
yet.'  Naturally  enough  he  found  not  figs,  but  instead 
of  cursing  himself,  he  cursed  the  faultless  fig  tree  "  (Mark 
xi.  11-14). 

Again,  referring  to  the  Gospel  story  of  His  death : 

"  The  Jews  alone  showed  the  firmness  of  purpose,  and, 
unlike  the  second  person  of  the  Trinity,  did  not  swerve 
a  hair's  breadth  from  the  path  which  they  had  chosen, 
keeping  to  their  ground  until  they  saw  Jesus  suspended 
on  the  cross,  that  the  eternal  decree  might  be  fulfilled. 
What  a  pity  that  God  could  not  show  the  same  persever- 
ance. Having  first  audaciously  put  himself  forward  to 
undergo  the  punishment  that  was  destined  for  the  whole 
human  race,  he  shrank  when  he  saw  actual  danger,  and 
at  last,  his  heart  failing  him,  cried  out,  Eli,  Eli,  lama 
sabachthani,  and  prayed  the  Father  to  save  him  from 
death  on  the  cross." 

But  the  author  of  El  9Akaid-ul-Wathaniya  fi 
diyanati-l-Messihiya  goes  to  even  greater  length  in 
his  hatred  of  the  Gospel  story  of  the  Crucifixion. 
So  also  did  El-Manar  in  its  recent  articles  on  the 
genealogy  of  Jesus,  His  human  origin,  His  relations 
with  John,  His  visits  to  Bethany,  and  His  drunken- 
ness at  the  Last  Supper.  All  these  accusations  are 
based  by  educated  Moslems  on  the  record  of  the  four 
Gospels  as  they  interpret  them. 

The  Islamic  Review  summed  it  up  in  these  words  : 

"  He  loved  women  who  were  not  related  to  him  in  any 
way.  John  xi.  5,  20,  28,  29  :  '  Now  Jesus  loved  Martha 


264        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

and  her  sister,  and  Lazarus.5  He  used  to  drink  wine. 
Matt.  xxvi.  29  :  4  But  I  say  unto  you,  I  will  not  drink 
henceforth  of  this  fruit  of  the  vine,  until  that  day  when 
I  drink  it  new  with  you  in  my  Father's  kingdom.'  And 
he  made  others  drink.  John  ii.  6—10  and  Matt.  xix.  17  : 
*  And  he  said  unto  him,  Why  callest  thou  me  good  ? 
There  is  none  good  but  one — that  is  God.'  Here  Jesus 
confesses  that  he  is  not  sinless.  In  short,  according  to 
the  decision  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  Jesus  was 
sinful  by  nature  and  according  to  Law.  If  he  was  sinful 
he  cannot  atone  for  the  sins  of  others,  according  to 
the  Christian  teachings.  So  Jesus  can  in  no  way  carry 
away  the  sins  of  all  Christians.  Christian  friends,  give 
up  this  unbecoming  and  fanciful  idea  of  Atonement, 
and  believe  in  the  Holy  Book,  which  in  a  few  but  por- 
tentous words  says  about  Jesus,  son  of  Mary,  as  illustrious 
in  this  world  and  the  world  to  come." 

One  is  constantly  reminded,  when  compelled  to 
read  these  blasphemous  articles  by  those  who  still 
call  themselves  Moslems,  of  the  words  of  Luke  in  the 
Gospel :  "  And  when  they  had  blindfolded  Him, 
they  struck  Him  on  the  face,  and  asked  Him,  saying, 
Prophesy,  who  is  it  that  smote  Thee?"  "Father, 
forgive  them  ;  for  they  know  not  what  they  do." 

It  is  a  relief  to  turn  from  all  this  kind  of  argu- 
ment and  bitter  opposition  to  outspoken  testimony 
in  favour  of  Christ  and  Christianity.  This  is  perhaps 
not  so  common,  but  it  is  even  more  indicative  of  the 
real  situation.  While  some  are  ready  to  cry,  "  Away 
with  Him,  not  this  man,  but  Mohammed,"  others 
are  hailing  Christ  with  glad  Hosannas  as  their  ideal 
of  character  and  the  hope  of  humanity.  In  both 
cases  educated  Moslems  are  compelled  to  face  the 
fact  of  the  Christ.  He  is  becoming  more  and  more 
the  centre  of  thought  and  discussion  in  the  Moslem 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST        265 

world.  'Ata  Hussein  Bey  in  a  small  volume  on 
political  economy  and  the  history  of  civilisation  in 
relation  to  Islam  (Cairo),  writes  : 

"  The  Summary  of  Jesus'  teaching  was  as  follows  : — 
"  First,  He  taught  the  Jews,  who  were  fanatically  inclined 
against  the  Roman  Government,  the  fundamental  differ- 
ences between  the  Church  and  the  State.     Secondly,  He 
taught  that  their  rulers  and  chiefs  were  corrupted  by 
love  of  money,  and  therefore  taught  the  duty  of  giving 
to  the  poor  and  not  treasuring  upon  earth.     Thirdly, 
He  saw  that  the  poor  were  greatly  neglected  and  despised, 
so  He   naturally  turned  to   them,  mingling  with  them 
and  blessing  them,  and  so  laying  the  foundations  of  the 
community  life.     Fourthly,  He  observed  that  envy  was 
rife,  and  so  He  preached  in  its  place  the  principles  of 
gentleness  and  forgiveness,   saying  that  the  greatest  of 
all  sins  was  to  allow  the  sun  to  set  upon  your  anger  against 
your  brother.     Fifthly,  He  saw  that  there  was  no  fellow- 
ship in  service  nor  compassion,   so  He  commanded  to 
His  disciples  mutual  assistance  and  service  without  pay, 
saying  to  them  :  '  Whoso  compelleth  thee  to  go  one  mile, 
go  with  him  twain.'     But  the  most  remarkable  thing 
which   our  Lord   Isa   commanded   was   universal  love. 
He  did  not  cease  to  preach  it  and  proclaim  it  so  that  He 
even  said  the  whole  law  and  the  prophets  are  fulfilled 
in  love,  and  His  teaching  concerning  love  was  so  strong 
that  He  commanded  men  to  love  even  their  enemies  and 
those  that  harmed  them ;  and  this  surely  is  a  principle 
of  life  higher  than  all  other  principles,  for  everything  is 
established  in  love,  and  in  love  and  through  love  every- 
thing revives,  and  by  means  of  love  universal  benevo- 
lence is  completed,  for  man's  love  to  his  brother  gives 
him  happiness  hereafter  and  in  this  world.  .  .  .  All  this 
the  well-balanced  mind  accepts  and  approves  of,  but  the 
question  arises,  is  it  possible  for  a  man  to  love  his  enemies 
and  do  good  to  those  that  hate  him  ?  J> 


266        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

So  high  are  the  ideals  of  Christ,  so  wonderful  the 
impression  created  by  His  personality  and  His 
teaching,  that  it  startles  and  awakens  incredulity. 
We  must  incarnate  the  teaching  of  our  Master  to 
win  those  who  ask,  "  Is  it  possible  ?  " 

Only  those  who  live  this  teaching  before  the  eyes 
of  the  Moslems  can  answer  the  questions  put  by  this 
type  of  educated  Moslem.  Not  by  controversy  and 
not  by  argument,  but  by  the  Spirit  of  Love,  will  such 
be  won  for  the  Christ  whose  teaching  they  have 
already  made  their  ideal. 

Mr.  G.  Khuda  Bukhsh,  in  his  Essays,  Indian  and 
Islamic,  says  (p.  246) : 

44  The  prophets  and  reformers  have  been  and  always 
will  be  men  of  like  passions  with  us,  with  this  all-important 
difference — that  in  them  the  Divine  spark  was  not  suffered 
prematurely  to  die  away.  They  felt  the  inward  message 
and  determined  to  carry  it  out.  .  .  .  Socrates  condemned 
as  a  corrupter  of  youth,  Jesus  crucified  as  a  setter  forth 
of  strange  things,  Mohammed  persecuted  for  his  religious 
mission  .  .  .  the  world,  however,  only  sees  at  rare 
intervals  the  vision — the  supreme  beatific  vision  of  a 
Socrates,  a  Jesus,  a  Mohammed.  .  .  .  ' 

Not  only  does  this  writer  speak  of  Jesus  in  such 
high  terms,  but  he  again  and  again  quotes  New 
Testament  language  with  approval : 

"  Is  it  not  religion  .  .  .  which  falls  on  dry  hearts  like 
rain,  and  which  whispers  to  self-weary  moribund  man, 
4  Thou  must  be  born  again  "  ?  " 4  Sons  of  God,'  "  he  writes, 
have  the  wisdom  of  this  world  as  well  as  of  the  next ; 
the  highest  goal  in  life  is  to  become  like  to  God  with  a 
pure  mind,  and  to  draw  near  to  Him  and  to  abide  in  Him  " 
(pp.  261,  262) ;  and  again,  4t  The  governing  principles  of 
all  religions  is  the  same.  In  the  language  of  the  apostle 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST        267 

James  [sic] :  *  Pure  religion  and  undefiled  before  God  and 
the  Father  is  this,  to  visit  the  fatherless  and  widows  in 
their  affliction,  and  to  keep  oneself  unspotted  from  the 
world.' " 

"  This  is  the  burden,"  he  says,  "  of  all  religions, 
and  this  is  the  burden  of  Islam  "  (pp.  20,  21).  How 
great  the  distance  is  between  the  ideal  Islam  and  the 
reality,  we  also  learn  from  his  book.  Who  can  read 
the  severe  criticisms  of  this  educated  Moslem  on  the 
popular  doctrine  of  Allah — more  trenchant  than 
Palgrave's  famous  characterisation — and  his  plea  for 
the  idea  of  a  merciful  Father,  without  realising  that 
Christ's  character  and  words  have  influenced  all  this 
new  teaching  ? 

A  few  years  ago  it  was  my  good  fortune  to  be  at 
Kerbela  in  Turkish  Arabia  and  to  attend  the  funeral 
services  of  a  Mujtahid  who  had  died  a  martyr  to 
Moslem  fanaticism.  The  funeral  oration,  given  in 
Arabic,  was  largely  a  panegyric  in  words  of  the  New 
Testament,  especially  taken  from  St.  Matthew, 
chaps,  v.-vii.  and  Rom.  xii. — all  the  Christian  ideals 
of  virtue  were  ascribed  to  the  deceased.  In  the 
same  spirit  one  of  the  nationalist  daily  papers  in 
Cairo  last  year  translated,  chapter  by  chapter,  Samuel 
Smiles'  Essays  on  Character  and  on  Self -Help,  for 
its  readers. 

Another  Cairo  paper  recently  had  a  signed  article 
by  a  leading  Moslem  of  Shebin-El-Kom,  protesting 
vigorously  against  the  methods  employed  by  some 
Moslems  in  buying  back  Christian  converts ;  he  then 
paid  a  very  high  tribute  to  the  superior  moral  char- 
acter of  Christians  as  compared  with  Moslems  (Misr, 
May  14th,  1914). 

All  this  shows  how  the  old  spirit  of  fanaticism  is 
disappearing,  and  how  Moslems  of  the  better  classes 


268        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

are  proud  of  their  new  tolerance,  and  many  of  them 
willing  to  see  fair  play  in  argument. 

At  the  Moslem  Anglo-Oriental  Educational  Con- 
ference held  in  Lucknow  (December  1912)  there  were 
many  happy  proofs  of  this  new  attitude  toward 
Christian  missions.  A  reception  was  held  for  the 
delegates  by  Reid  Christian  College  and  Isabella 
Thoburn  College,  attended  by  two  hundred  Moslems. 
The  Chairman,  Major  Seyyid  Hassan  Bilgrami,  M.D., 
made  a  remarkable  address  praising  the  efforts  of 
missionary  education  from  the  days  of  Carey  and 
Marshman.  He  mentioned  among  the  finest  institu- 
tions for  education  in  the  whole  world,  the  Syrian 
Protestant  College  at  Beirut,  and  Robert  College, 
Constantinople. 

It  is  still  more  noteworthy  and  indicative  of  this 
new  spirit  of  tolerance  and  appreciation  that  El 
Muayyad,  the  leading  Moslem  daily  paper  in  Cairo  and 
in  the  Moslem  world,  welcomed  the  proposal  of  a 
Cairo  Christian  university,  and  prophesied  a  great 
future  for  it,  "  although  we  know  that  the  college 
will  be  established  in  the  name  of  evangelism  and  be 
guided  by  the  missionaries  "  (El  Muayyad,  June  7th, 
1914). 

Compare  in  contrast,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bitter 
attack  on  Beirut  College  and  the  evil  results  of 
Christian  education  that  appeared  in  Es-Sha'ab,  a 
nationalist  organ  of  Cairo,  on  June  23rd,  1914. 

Most  educated  Moslems  fully  understand  that  the 
old  weapons  of  intolerance  and  violence  have  had 
their  day,  and  that  a  new  era  of  liberty  and  enlighten- 
ment has  come.  When  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly  in  Egypt  demanded  at  its  first  session  that 
the  Ministry  of  Education  should  keep  watch  over 
mission  schools  and  prevent  Christian  missionaries 


TOWARDS  JESUS  CHRIST       269 

from  teaching  the  fundamentals  of  their  faith  to 
Moslem  pupils,  the  demand  was  mocked  and  bitterly 
opposed,  so  that  no  action  was  taken. 

Without,  therefore,  in  any  way  understanding  the 
new  anti-Christian  attitude  of  some  educated  Moslems 
and  the  Pan-Islamic  efforts  of  others  to  oppose 
Christian  missions  by  every  modern  method  of  attack 
or  defence,  it  yet  remains  true  that  the  whole  situa- 
tion is  hopeful  to  the  last  degree.  The  light  is  break- 
ing everywhere. 

There  never  was  so  much  friendliness,  such  willing- 
ness to  discuss  the  question  at  issue,  such  a  large 
attendance  of  Moslems  at  Christian  schools,  hospitals, 
public  meetings,  and  even  preaching  services  as  there 
is  to-day.  And  this  is  true  in  spite  of  public  warnings 
against  having  dealings  with  Christian  missionaries, 
or,  as  recently  in  Turkey,  systematic  attempts  to 
boycott  Christians  commercially.  The  American 
Mission  in  Egypt  has  a  committee  on  evangelistic 
work  which  after  a  careful  study  has  just  made 
this  report : 

"At  no  time  in  the  history  of  the  Mission  has  there 
been  such  an  urgent  call  for  aggressive  evangelism  among 
all  classes.  The  special  religious  awakening  among 
educated  Moslems  in  all  parts  of  Egypt  has  brought  upon 
us  the  twofold  burden  :  First,  how  to  deal  with  convicted 
and  converted  Moslems ;  and  second,  how  to  meet  the 
antagonistic  opposition  of  Moslem  societies.  This 
awakening  has  brought  about  such  a  spirit  of  inquiry, 
with  the  result  that  an  overwhelming  number  of  Moham- 
medans are  prepared  to  hear  the  Gospel  and  to  study  the 
Bible,  that  we  find  ourselves  insufficient  in  number  and 
equipment  to  deal  successfully  with  the  present  situation." 

What  is  true  of  Egypt  is  true,  mutatis  mutandis, 
of  Turkey,  Persia,  India,  Algeria,  and  Java  as  abun- 


270        ATTITUDE  OF  MOSLEMS 

dant  testimony  and  recent  missionary  correspondence 
could  show.  And  what  does  it  all  mean  ?  It  means 
that  we  should  press  forward  with  all  our  might 
plans  for  immediate  evangelisation  of  these  educated 
classes.  They  are  adrift,  and  the  Gospel  alone  can 
give  them  new  anchorage.  They  are  hungry  for  the 
friendship  that  does  not  patronise  and  the  love  that 
can  forgive.  They  have  lost  faith  in  the  old  Islam 
and  reach  out  to  new  ideals  in  ethics.  Who  can  satisfy 
them  but  Christ  ?  This  is  the  missionaries'  supreme 
opportunity.  If  we  can  win  the  leaders  of  Moslem 
thought  now,  Reformed  Islam  will  be  an  open  door 
into  Christianity. 


CHAPTER   XV 

THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN 


871 


"  AND  if  we  would  read  the  lesson  of  history — not  only 
the  lesson  which  Islam  brings,  but  that  lesson  reiterated 
again  and  again  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church — 
we  shall  find  the  same  result.  All  attempts  to  simplify 
the  metaphysical  basis  of  our  faith  in  a  '  Unitarian  ' 
direction  have,  under  the  test  of  time  and  life,  failed. 
Deists  and  theists  have  come  and  gone.  Ethics  and 
natural  theology  have  claimed  their  own  and  more, 
have  had,  for  a  time,  their  claims  allowed  and  then  have 
vanished.  In  many  ways  the  Christian  Church  has 
moved  ;  the  guidance  of  the  Spirit  has  not  failed  it. 
Its  faith  has  seen  many  hypotheses,  has  been  enfolded 
in  many  garments.  But  to  the  seeker  in  the  great  space 
that  lies  between  Materialism  and  Pantheism,  the  presen- 
tation that  still  expresses  most  adequately  the  mystery 
behind  our  lives,  is  that  in  the  Christian  Trinity,  and  the 
words  that  come  nearest  are  those  of  the  Nicene  Creed. "- 
DUNCAN  BLACK  MACDONALD. 


272 


CHAPTER   XV 
THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN 

A  MISSIONARY  is  not  only  one  who  is  sent  but, 
one  who  is  sent  with  a  message.  The  true  missionary 
must  not  only  have  a  message,  but  he  must  be  the 
living  embodiment  of  that  message  and  the  incarna- 
tion of  the  truth  which  he  teaches.  Like  an  ambassa- 
dor at  a  foreign  court,  he  must  not  only  carry  creden- 
tials from  his  own  government,  but  he  must  be  loyal 
to  that  government  and  represent  its  ideals  and  ideas 
to  those  to  whom  he  goes.  The  knowledge  and 
experience  of  this  truth  make  the  missionary.  He 
stands  as  a  witness  to  the  truth  which  he  possesses, 
and  proclaims  it  by  his  life  as  well  as  by  his  lips. 

If  the  man  who  goes  out  to  the  Orient  has  no 
larger  and  fuller  message  in  regard  to  God  and  His 
dealings  with  men  than  that  already  possessed  by 
those  who  ardently  believe  the  non-Christian  re- 
ligions, it  is  perfectly  evident  that  when  he  comes 
in  contact  with  those  to  whom  he  is  sent  the  overflow 
of  faith  will  be  in  the  wrong  direction  ;  and  it  is  also 
clear  that  unless  he  knows  by  personal  experience 
what  the  Truth  can  do  in  the  transformation  of 
his  own  character  and  in  conquering  his  own  tempta- 
tions, he  cannot  help  others.  The  man  who  believes 
neither  in  revelation  nor  inspiration  and  meets  a 
Mohammedan  who  fully  believes  that  God  has  spoken 
and  that  we  have  His  word  as  our  sufficient  guide  to 
18 


274    THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN 

being  made  whole,  is  looked  upon  with  pity  because 
he  has  no  real  message  to  give.  The  Hindu  pundit 
would  be  able  to  demonstrate  both  the  reasonableness 
and  the  necessity  of  a  divine  incarnation  to  the  man 
who  denied  that  it  was  possible  for  God  to  appear 
in  the  flesh,  and  even  the  Buddhist  or  Animist  might 
contribute  some  element  of  religious  faith  to  the  out- 
and-out  so-called  "  Christian  agnostic." 

There  is  some  truth  in  all  the  non- Christian  re- 
ligions, and  much  good  in  many  of  them.  No  one  is 
so  ready  to  admit  this  as  the  man  who  knows  from  his 
own  personal  experience  the  full  power  of  Christianity. 
He  who  knows  the  superiority  of  what  he  possesses 
is  never  afraid  of  comparisons,  but  the  man  without 
conviction  has  no  certain  standard  by  which  to  test 
the  truth  of  other  systems. 

Christianity  is  the  final  religion,  and  its  message — 
Christ  Incarnate,  Crucified,  Risen,  and  Glorified — 
is  the  one  thing  needed  to  evangelise  the  world. 
Unbelief  does  not  trouble  itself  by  confuting  any  other 
religion  than  Christianity.  We  never  hear  of  agnostics 
or  sceptics  writing  against  Mohammedanism  or 
Buddhism  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  proving  their 
falsehood.  This  is  a  remarkable  tribute  to  the 
unique  character  of  Christianity,  and  indirectly  proves 
that  its  demands  are  also  unique.  If  a  man  accepts 
Christianity,  he  must  live  according  to  its  teachings 
or  be  accused  of  hypocrisy ;  but  in  other  religions 
faith  and  morality  are  either  loosely  connected  or 
utterly  divorced  from  each  other.  Because  Chris- 
tianity claims  to  be  the  absolute  religion  and  affirms 
that  it  is  a  matter  of  spiritual  life  or  death  whether 
men  accept  it,  opponents  cannot  leave  it  alone ;  they 
know  Christianity  will  not  leave  them  alone.  It  is 
this  unique  character  of  the  message  that  makes  the 


THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN    275 

missionary's  sphere  as  universal  as  the  needs  of 
humanity. 

Christians  may  differ  among  themselves  in  regard 
to  the  interpretation  of  the  non-essentials,  but  in 
regard  to  the  fundamentals  of  the  Christian  faith 
they  are  agreed.  The  least  common  denominator 
of  the  Gospel  as  Paul  understood  it  is  given  by  him 
in  these  words :  "  Now  I  make  known  unto  you, 
brethren,  the  Gospel  which  I  preached  unto  you, 
which  also  ye  received,  wherein  also  ye  stand,  by  which 
also  ye  are  saved  ;  I  make  known,  I  say,  in  what 
words  I  preached  it  unto  you,  if  ye  hold  it  fast, 
except  ye  believed  in  vain.  For  I  delivered  unto 
you  first  of  all  that  which  I  also  received,  how 
that  Christ  died  for  our  sins  according  to  the 
Scriptures ;  and  that  He  was  buried,  and  that  He 
hath  been  raised  on  the  third  day  according  to 
the  Scriptures."  He  tells  the  Corinthians  that  this 
Gospel  is  sufficient  for  their  salvation.  The  man 
who  does  not  hold  with  conviction  even  this  simple 
statement  of  the  faith  surely  has  no  message  large 
enough  and  strong  enough  to  warrant  a  journey  to  the 
antipodes.  Nor  will  it  profit  him  to  have  only  an 
intellectual  apprehension  of  these  truths.  He  must 
have  a  vital  experience  of  their  power,  or  his  message 
will  be  without  sincerity  and  without  spiritual 
result. 

When  the  earnest  seeker  asks,  "  What  is  Christi- 
anity ?  "  he  has  a  right  to  an  answer  that,  however 
brief,  shall  be  definite  and  authoritative,  and  no 
man  is  qualified  to  attempt  to  answer  so  important 
a  question  for  the  seeker  after  truth  unless  he  himself 
has  tested  in  his  own  experience  the  principles  of  the 
faith  set  forth  in  his  message.  The  main  source  of 
our  knowledge  of  things  spiritual  is  the  Bible,  and  no 


276    THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN 

man  can  give  its  central  message  unless  he  believes  it 
true.  You  cannot  read  even  the  first  chapter  of 
Mark  without  seeing  that  it  proclaims  the  super- 
human character  of  our  faith,  the  deity  of  Jesus 
Christ  and  the  necessity  for  the  Atonement.  There 
are  some  things  which  are  so  fundamental  that  to 
remove  them  is  to  overthrow  the  whole  superstructure. 

The  struggle  is  an  old  one.  The  fight  has  always 
been  against  the  supernatural  claims  of  Christianity. 
Those  who  are  animated  merely  by  the  altruistic 
spirit — the  very  product  of  Christianity — even  though 
they  have  a  Christian  heritage  in  Christian  lands, 
want  to  accept  the  fruit,  instead  of  realising  that  the 
fruit  depends  on  the  root ;  and  this  has  always  resulted 
in  a  weakening  faith  and  a  curtailment  or  adulteration 
of  the  Gospel. 

"  In  apostolic  days,"  said  the  Bishop  of  Liverpool 
at  the  British  Student  Volunteer  Conference  in  1908, 
"  men  advocated  a  Gospel  without  the  Cross.  But 
St.  Paul  would  have  none  of  it.  In  the  fourth  century 
Arius  taught  a  Christianity  without  a  perfectly  divine 
Saviour,  and  the  Church  would  not  have  it.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  the  Renaissance,  intoxicated  by  the 
discovery  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  despised 
the  '  jargon  of  St.  Paul '  and  would  have  paganised 
Christianity,  but  the  Reformation  brought  Northern 
Europe  back  to  the  Scriptures  and  to  the  Christ. 
To-day  men  are  proclaiming  a  Gospel  without  the 
supernatural.  They  are  asking  us  to  be  content  with 
a  perfect  human  Christ ;  with  a  Bethlehem  where  no 
miracle  was  wrought ;  with  a  Calvary  which  saw 
sublime  self-sacrifice,  but  no  atonement  for  sin  ;  with 
a  sepulchre  from  which  no  angel's  hand  rolled  away 
the  stone.  But  we  must  have  none  of  it.  We  will 
hold  fast,  we  will  transmit  the  faith  once  for  all  de- 


THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN    277 

livered  to  the  saints.  We  will  hand  down  to  our 
children,  we  will  proclaim  to  all  the  tribes  of  the 
earth,  Christ  Incarnate,  Atoning,  Risen,  Ascended, 
our  Intercessor  at  God's  right  hand,  waiting  to  come 
again  to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead." 

The  man  who  thinks  he  can  help  to  evangelise  the 
world  without  faith  in  Christ  and  experience  of  His 
power  will  disappoint  those  who  send  him,  and  will 
himself  regret  ever  having  attempted  to  do  the  work 
of  a  missionary.  Many  blighted,  disappointed  lives 
are  explained  by  this  fact. 

Throughout  all  the  East  thousands  have  lost  faith 
in  their  old  religions,  and  are  longing  for  guidance, 
not  to  new  doubts,  but  to  a  new  faith.  The  spiritual 
hunger  of  men  in  Korea  will  not  be  satisfied  by  philan- 
thropic effort  for  their  temporal  needs.  The  educated 
classes  in  Egypt,  who  have  lost  faith  in  the  Koran  as 
the  very  Word  of  God,  will  not  find  rest  for  their  souls 
and  help  in  temptation  from  those  who  have  not 
tested  the  truth  of  the  gospel  of  Christ  and  are  pre- 
pared to  present  the  living  Christ  with  that  confidence 
which  is  the  result  of  personal  knowledge  of  His 
power  to  enable  men  to  live  the  victorious  life.  Men 
everywhere  are  hungering  for  the  living  Christ. 

There  is  no  one  who  can  guide  them  but  the  man 
who  has  that  thorough  grip  on  the  fundamentals  of 
the  Christian  faith  which  comes  as  a  result  of  having 
experienced  its  power. 

It  is  strange  that  this  should  not  appear  axiomatic 
to  those  who  are  filled  with  philanthropic  love  for 
humanity  and  think  that  they  can  do  good  service  on 
the  foreign  field.  Yet  there  are  men  who  think  that 
they  can  help  to  evangelise  the  world  without  the 
message  of  the  Gospel  in  their  hearts  and  in  their  life. 
A  missionary  candidate  recently  wrote :  "  I  do  not 


278    THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN 

feel  free  to  force  my  own  individual  opinion  on  my 
fellow-man,  nor  do  I  think  that  by  proselytising  the 
heathen  we  benefit  him.  Yet,"  etc.  Such  a  man 
has  no  true  idea  of  a  missionary.  The  missionary 
does  not  force  his  individual  opinion  on  any  man. 
His  convictions  are  the  product  of  his  experience. 
His  experience  came  when  Truth  made  him  its 
captive  and  its  advocate.  He  has  a  message  because 
he  has  accepted  the  Truth  and  his  own  life  has  been 
mastered  by  its  power. 

There  are  also  men  who  think  that  character  has 
little  relation  to  creed,  and  that  the  non-Christian 
world  will  find  Jesus  Christ  without  the  message  of 
the  Cross.  Such  an  one  recently  wrote  : 

"  I  should  like  to  take  the  position  of  a  medical  man 
rather  than  of  a  missionary,  as  I  am  not  only  not  versed 
along  religious  lines,  but  am  primarily  a  medical  man  at 
heart.  I  believe  that  character  is  a  more  important 
consideration  than  mere  religious  belief.  I  attend  Church, 
but  am  not  a  member,  and  am  thoroughly  of  the  '  new 
school '  in  my  beliefs  concerning  the  Christian  faith." 

There  is  nothing  to  prevent  a  man  with  an  altruistic 
spirit  going  out  to  practise  medicine  in  a  non-Christian 
country  in  the  same  way  as  he  practises  in  this 
country,  namely,  at  his  own  charges.  But  it  is  not 
reasonable  to  expect  a  Mission  Board,  organised  for 
the  express  purpose  of  giving  a  knowledge  of  Jesus 
Christ  to  the  non-Christian  world,  to  send  him  out  at 
their  expense. 

A  medical  practitioner,  teacher,  or  an  engineer 
might  do  excellent  service  on  the  foreign  field,  as  well 
as  at  home  along  philanthropic  lines,  although  the 
fierce  temptations  of  the  Orient  and  the  non-Christian 
atmosphere  make  it  very  hard  for  any  one  not 


THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN    279 

dominated  by  the  life  of  Christ  and  who  has  not 
tested  His  power  to  retain  moral  character. 

The  non-Christian  world,  however,  needs  not 
only  medical  skill,  but  the  skill  of  reaching  men's 
hearts  with  a  message  of  hope.  The  only  men  who 
have  worked  modern  miracles  on  the  foreign  field 
have  been  the  men  with  a  message. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  one  message  is  not 
expressed  in  diverse  ways  and  by  every  possible 
method.  "  There  are  diversities  of  gifts,  but  the 
same  Spirit  "  uses  them  to  the  one  end,  that  of 
bringing  men  to  Christ  and  Christ  into  the  lives  of 
men.  "  There  is  only  one  aim  before  us  missionaries," 
said  Donald  Fraser,  after  experience  in  the  heart  of 
Africa,  to  the  students  at  the  Nashville  Student 
Volunteer  Convention, — "  it  is  the  presentation  of 
Christ  to  the  world.  I  do  not  for  a  moment  fancy 
that  such  an  aim  limits  in  any  way  the  methods  which 
we  may  use.  Everything  which  elevates  the  social 
conscience,  which  purifies  administration,  which 
sanctifies  laws — every  method  of  that  sort  may  be- 
come an  avenue  to  lead  to  Jesus  Christ.  But  this 
I  say,  that  these  things  by  themselves  are  useless  ; 
that  unless  these  avenues  lead  directly  to  the  living 
Christ,  we  are  only  doing  a  temporal  work  which  will 
not  last  through  the  ages.  I  say,  too,  that  if  we  who 
lead  along  these  avenues  are  not  to  end  in  a  maze, 
we  must  step  side  by  side  with  Jesus  Christ,  that  the 
people  may  at  last  reach  to  Him.  Let  me  press  it. 
The  supreme  end  of  the  missionary  cannot  be  attained 
by  anything  else  than  by  spiritual  methods,  by 
spiritual  ambitions,  the  elevation  of  the  human  race 
until  it  returns  to  God,  and  the  face  of  God  is  again 
formed  in  man." 

It  was  Henry  Martyn  who,  when  a  Mohammedan 


280    THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN 

was  speaking  derisively  of  Christ,  said  :  "I  could 
not  endure  existence  if  Christ  were  not  glorified. 
It  would  be  hell  for  me  if  He  were  always  to  be 
thus  dishonoured."  Raymund  Lull,  Robert  Moffat, 
James  Gilmour,  David  Livingstone,  John  G.  Paton, 
James  Chalmers,  Grenfell  of  Labrador,  and  Grenfell 
of  the  Congo,  with  all  the  other  heroes  of  the  Cross, 
have  been  able  to  say  with  the  Apostle  Paul,  "  We 
preach  Christ  crucified."  Every  one  of  them,  how- 
ever diverse  in  call,  talents,  and  environment,  attained 
missionary  success  because  they  had  a  message  and 
that  message  the  Gospel,  which  they  preached  not  as 
a  theory  or  creed,  but  as  their  very  life. 

A  man  who  has  mere  opinions  and  no  convictions 
wrought  out  in  his  own  life's  experience  as  regards 
the  Christ,  is  a  man  without  a  message.  The  man  who 
expects  to  go  out  and  represent  Christianity  in  the 
non-Christian  world  must  carry  with  him  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  power  of  Christ  enabling  him  hour 
by  hour  to  live  the  victorious  life.  It  is  the  one  in- 
dispensable part  of  the  missionary's  outfit  and  the  one 
that  convinces  the  other  man  of  the  truth  of  the 
message. 

Some  years  ago  a  missionary  was  preaching  in 
a  hospital.  He  spoke  of  the  love  of  Christ,  and  en- 
deavoured to  set  forth  its  length  and  breadth  and 
depth  and  height,  using  the  words  of  the  Apostle 
as  the  basis  of  what  he  was  saying.  He  endeavoured 
to  present  the  subject  simply,  so  that  it  could  be 
understood  by  the  uneducated  people,  who  had 
gathered  in  the  waiting-room  of  the  hospital. 

At  the  close  of  the  address  a  Moslem,  unprepossess- 
ing in  appearance,  who  had  evidently  not  been  to  the 
hospital  before,  stepped  forward  and  with  Bedouin 
boldness  exclaimed  bluntly,  "  I  understood  all  you 


THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN    281 

told  us,  because  I  have  seen  that  sort  of  a  man 
myself." 

In  the  conversation  that  followed,  this  man,  who 
came  from  a  city  about  a  thousand  miles  distant, 
began  to  describe,  in  response  to  inquiries,  a  stranger 
who  had  come  to  his  city  and  took  up  his  residence 
there.  The  Moslem  told  how  he  had  watched  the 
stranger. 

"  Why,"  he  said,  "  he  was  a  strange  man.  When 
people  did  wrong  to  him,  he  did  good  to  them.  He 
looked  after  sick  folks  and  prisoners,  and  everybody 
who  was  in  trouble.  He  even  treated  negro  slave 
boys  and  sick  Arabs  kindly.  He  was  always  good 
to  other  people.  Lots  of  them  never  had  such  a 
friend  as  he  was.  He  used  to  take  long  journeys 
in  the  broiling  sun  to  help  them.  He  seemed  to  think 
one  man  was  as  good  as  another.  He  was  a  friend  to 
all  kinds  of  people.  He  was  just  what  you  said." 

It  surprised  the  missionary  that  this  rude  un- 
educated man  had  recognised  in  the  description 
which  he  had  given  of  the  love  of  Christ,  a  Christian 
missionary  ;  and  greater  was  his  surprise  later  to 
find  that  it  was  his  own  brother  who  some  years  before 
had  opened  a  mission  in  that  city.  That  Mohamme- 
dan had  not  only  heard  the  message  of  the  missionary, 
but  he  had  seen  it  exemplified  in  the  missionary's 
life.  What  higher  tribute  could  be  paid  to  the  daily 
life  of  one  of  God's  servants  than  the  fact  that  an 
ignorant  Mohammedan,  studying  him  day  by  day, 
recognised  in  his  daily  life  the  principles  of  the  Gospel 
of  Christ  ! 

The  Christian  Church  has  established  and  sup- 
ported the  missionary  enterprise  to  give  the  non- 
Christian  world  the  Gospel  of  Christ  as  it  has  been 
received  and  interpreted  by  that  Church.  Those  who 


282    THE  MESSAGE  AND  THE  MAN 

do  not  accept  the  message,  though  they  may  call 
themselves  members  of  a  Church,  have  nothing  to 
take  to  the  mission  field,  and  manifestly,  instead  of  re- 
presenting the  Church,  they  ?wVrepresent  the  Church 
that  sends  them. 

All  missionary  Boards  should  not  only  emphasise 
the  highest  physical  and  intellectual  qualifications 
of  candidates  for  missionary  work,  but  even  more 
strongly  insist  that  they  be  spiritually  qualified.  Only 
spiritual  men  are  a  real  acquisition  and  reinforcement 
in  the  conduct  of  a  spiritual  enterprise.  Unless  the 
missionary's  first  love  is  his  love  for  Christ  crucified 
and  exalted,  he  will  lose  it,  grow  lukewarm  and  finally 
cold,  when  surrounded  by  the  atmosphere  of  heathen- 
ism. The  real  missionary  spirit  is  the  Holy  Spirit. 
He  Himself  gave  us  the  message  in  the  Scriptures, 
and  in  the  Christ  enables  us  to  interpret  it  to  others. 
Not  until  a  man's  life  has  been  transformed  by  the 
power  of  the  message  he  goes  to  proclaim  is  he  ready 
to  endure  the  hardship  and  to  be  patient  under  the 
adversity  which  is  sure  to  be  his  experience  as  a 
missionary.  He  must  know  that  the  Christian  faith 
is  a  reality  ;  that  his  faith  is  the  "  substance  of  things 
hoped  for,  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen."  He 
believes  that  God  has  worked  miracles  in  the  past  and 
can  work  miracles  to-day.  He  knows  that  Christianity 
in  its  origin,  history,  and  effect  is  from  first  to  last 
supernatural.  The  man  who  denies  its  supernatural 
character  cannot  be  a  true  missionary  of  the  Christ, 
even  though  he  go  to  the  mission  field.  The  mis- 
sionary spirit  will  not  abide  without  the  missionary 
message.  The  giants  in  faith  have  been  the  giants 
in  faithfulness. 


INDEX 


Abyssinia,  43,  56,  61,  207. 

Acolutho,  A.,  162. 

Adana,  119,  127. 

Aden,  66,  119. 

Adrianople,  119. 

Aegean  Islands,  69. 

Afghanistan,  Arabic  in,  193  ; 
fanaticism,  101 ;  islamised, 
75  ;  Koran  in,  104  ;  Mos- 
lem population,  68  ;  un- 
occupied mission  field,  47, 
115  ;  young  Afghans,  212. 

Africa,    Moslem    population, 

43.     57.     58«    6l  ff-  ;      un~ 

occupied  fields,  49. 
Aintab,  120. 
Akmolinsk,  77. 
'Alam,  suppression  of,  30. 
Albania,  117,  222. 
Aleppo,  119. 
Algeria,      Arabic     in,      192; 

Moslem     population.     63  ; 

Moslem   press,    248  ;     Nile 

Mission  press  literature,  32. 
American    College    for   Girls, 

Constantinople,  26. 
American       missions,       Asia 

Minor,  26;   Nile  valley,  31. 
Amin,  Judge  Kasim,  quoted, 

126,  180,  219,  248. 
Andijan,  77. 
Andrias,  7,  162. 
Angola,  61. 


Anjuman  -  i  -  Taraqqi  Islam, 
1 66. 

Annali  dell'  Islam,  45. 

Annam,  68. 

Arabia,  101  ff. ;  Moslem  pop- 
ulation, 68,  115  ;  Nile 
Mission  press  literature  in, 

32- 

Arabian  Mission,  106  ff. 

Arabic  Bible,  outreach  of,  25. 

Arabic,  spread  of,  31,  156, 
192  ff. 

Arabic-Persian  version  of  the 
Koran,  170. 

Argentine,  Moslem  popula- 
tion, 69. 

Armenian  Church,  39,  40,  232; 
Moslems,  68,  78,  117. 

Arnold,  Prof.,  quoted,  45,  76  ; 
Theo.,  161. 

Arrivabene,  A.,  161. 

Ashkabad,  76. 

Asia,  Moslem  population,  57, 
58,  66  ff. 

Asia  Minor,  Moslem  popula- 
tion, 68  ;  Nile  Mission 
press  literature  in,  32. 

'Attar,  Mohammed  el,  181  ff. 

Australia,  Moslem  popula- 
tion, 70, 

Austria-Hungary,  Moslem 
population,  69. 

Axenfeld,  Dr.  K,  43. 


284 


INDEX 


Azhar,  conditions  in,  184 ; 
curriculum,  144 ;  reform, 
29,  125 ;  inquirers  from, 
220  f. 

Bab  el  Fatooh,  233. 
Baghdad,  Cairo  literature  in, 

28;      missions     at,      119; 

Moslem      press     of,     248  ; 

struggle    for    Home    Rule, 

210 ;   railway,  102. 
Baglitche-Serai,  81. 
Bahrein  Islands,  66,  119. 
Baku,  77. 

Balkan  wars,  38,  210. 
Baluchistan,  101. 
Bandar  Abbas,  103. 
Bartema,  visit  to  Mecca,  22. 
Bartold,    Prof.    W.,    quoted, 

81. 
Barton,  Dr.  Jas.,  quoted,  25, 

112. 

Basutoland,  64. 
Bechuanaland,  64. 
Becker,     Prof.,    43,    45,    65 

(note  4). 

Belgian  Congo,  61. 
Bengal,  Christian  converts  in, 

£21: ;     Nile    Mission    press 

literature  in,  32 ;    pilgrims 

to  Mecca,  21. 

Bengali,  as  language  of  re- 
ligious literature,  156; 

translation    of    Koran    in, 

173- 

"  Berceau  de  1' Islam,"  45. 
Bey-rout,    Faculte    Orientale, 

45  ;   missions  at,  119,  197. 
Bible  House,  Constantinople, 

26. 
Bible  Society,  work  in  Cairo, 

3 1  ;   Russia,  87  f .  ;    Arabia, 


219;     number     of     Bible 
versions,  157. 

Bibliander,  Theodore,  159, 
161. 

Bobrovinkoff,  Mme,  56,  76, 
86  f. 

Boedi  Oetama,  216. 

Bokhara,  attacked  by  Sara- 
cens, 672  A.D.,  74  ;  centre 
of  Moslem  propaganda,  75, 
77  ;  government,  82  ; 
Moslem  population,  68  ; 
unoccupied  mission  field, 

49.  US- 

Bona ventura  de  Seve,  160. 
Borden,  Wm.,  222. 
Bosphorus,  24. 
Boysen,  161. 
Brazil,     Moslem    population, 

70 ;  Moslem  press,  207. 
Brent,  Bishop,  quoted,  51. 
British  Borneo,  66 ;  East 

Africa,  32,  63  ;   Guiana,  70. 
Broomhall,  Marshall,  56,  207 
Brown,  Dr.  Francis,  44. 
Bryce,  Viscount,  40. 
Bukhsh,    S.    Khuda,   quoted, 

180,  217,  219,  246  ff.,  266  f. 
Bulgaria,  Moslem  population, 

69. 
Burckhardt,   visit  to  Mecca, 

22. 

Burma,  28. 
Burton,  22,  168. 
Bushire,  103. 
Busrah,  103,  119,  210. 

Caetani,  Prince  Leone,  45, 
147  f.,  204. 

Cairo,  centre  of  intellectual 
influence,  19,  26  ff.  ;  centre 
of  dervish  orders,  30  fi.  ; 


INDEX 


285 


conditions  in,  184!,  248  ; 
conference  at,  113,  204; 
journalism,  30  ff.  ;  Khedival 
library,  27 ;  Moslem  ag- 
nostic influence  of  govern- 
ment schools,  29 ;  mosques, 
27  ;  population,  26  ff .  ; 
printing  presses,  28  ;  site 
for  Christian  university,  3 1 ; 
students,  28. 

Calcutta,  Moslem  press,  248. 

Cantine,  Rev.  Jas.,  quoted, 
107. 

Canton,  Moslem  prayer  to- 
wards Mecca,  21  ;  Cairo 
literature  in,  28. 

Cape  Colony,  Cairo  influence 
at,  28 ;  Koran  in,  104 ; 
Moslem  population,  64 ; 
pilgrims  to  Mecca,  21  ; 
prayers  towards  Mecca,  2 1 . 

Cape  Town,  91  ff. 

Casanova,  45. 

Cemeteries,  21. 

Census  of  Moslem  World,  55  ff. 

Central  Asia,  49. 

Ceylon,  66. 

Cheikho,  P£re,  45. 

China,  Arabic  in,  193  ;  Mos- 
lem population,  56,  68  f., 
221 ;  Moslem  prayer  to- 
wards Mecca,  18  ;  Nile 
Mission  press  literature  in, 
32. 

Chinese  commentary  on  the 
Koran,  171  f. 

Chinese  Turkestan,  32,  49. 

Church  Missionary  Society  in 
Cairo,  31. 

Cilicia,  128. 

Clark,  Edson  L.,  quoted,  105. 

Clocks  in  Moslem  lands,  1 50  ff . 


Comores,  62. 

"  Comrade,"  quoted,  205,  253, 

256. 
Constantinople,  centre  of  poli- 

tical  influence,    19,    24  ff.  ; 

conquest    by    Turks,    24  ; 

missionary  occupation,  26, 

119;  Moslem  press  of,  248  ; 

significance       of       present 

struggle  for,  25. 
Coppolani,  31. 
Coptic  Church,  31,  39. 
Courtellemont,  visit  to  Mecca, 

22. 

Crete,  69. 

Crimea,  islamised,  75. 
Cromer,  Earl  of,  quoted,  28, 

123,  124,  195. 
Cross,   Mohammed's  attitude 

towards  the,  230  ff. 
Cuba,     Moslem     population, 

70. 

Curzon,  Lord,  quoted,  206. 
Cyprus,    Nile    Mission    press 

literature  in,  32. 

Daghestan,  77. 

Dahomey,  62. 

Damascus  Railway,  114. 

Damiry,  Ed.,  191. 

Danish    translation    of    the 

Koran,  160. 
Darfur,  65. 
Denney,  Dr.  Jas.,  quoted,  227, 

242. 

Depont,  30. 
Dervish  orders,  30. 
Dhu-al-Hajj,  146. 
Dhu-al-Ka'da,  146. 
Diarbekr,  104. 
Disintegration      of      Moslem 

world,  208  f. 


286 


INDEX 


D'Ollone,  Commandant,  56, 
207. 

Doughty,  22,  164 ;  quoted, 
232. 

Duab  of  Turkestan,  82. 

Dutch  East  Indies,  Moslem 
population,  67  ;  policy  re- 
garding Islam,  212;  Guiana, 
70;  translation  of  the 
Koran,  161. 

Dwight,  Dr.,  26. 

Edinburgh  World  Missionary 

Conference,  44,  204,  257. 
Egypt,     Arabic     press,     31  ; 

Christian  literature  in,  32  ; 

Christian    population,    31  ; 

Moslem     population,     64 ; 

revival  of  Islam,  250  ff. 
Egyptian  Sudan,  32. 
Elisabetpol,  77. 
English    translations    of    the 

Koran,  163  ff. 
Eritrea,  61. 
Esperanto  translation  of  the 

Koran,  162. 
Europe,   Moslem   population, 

69. 

Fahmy,  Mansour,  248. 
Falconer,  Keith,  133,  222. 
Federated  Malay  States,  67. 
Finley,  Major,  205. 
Finns  of  the  Volga,  75. 
Forbes,  Dr.,  quoted,  141. 
Forsyth,  Dr.    P.    T.,    quoted, 

226. 

Fracassi,  A.,  162. 
France,    Moslem   population, 

69. 

French,  Bishop  V.,  133, 
222. 


French  Equatorial  Africa,  62  ; 
Guiana,  70  ;  Guinea,  62  ; 
literature  in  Arabic  trans- 
lations, 30  ;  Sahara,  White 
Fathers  in  the,  49  ;  Somali- 
land,  62  ;  translations  of 
the  Koran,  160. 

Frorief,  Justus  Fredericus, 
1 60. 

Fula,  65  (note  3). 

Gambia,  63. 

Garabedian,  Rev.  S.,  91. 

Gasprinsky,  79,  80,  219,  248. 

Gerdener,  Rev.  G.  B.,  quoted, 
92. 

German  Colonial  Congress  of 
1910,  43,  212 ;  Colonies 
in  Africa,  Moslem  popula- 
tion, 56  ;  South  -  West 
Africa,  63  ;  East  Africa,  32, 
63 ;  translations  of  the 
Koran,  161. 

Glasemaker,  J.  H.,  161. 

Gold  Coast,  63. 

Goldsack,  Rev.  W.,  173. 

Goldziher,  Prof.,  45. 

Great  Britain,  Moslem  popu- 
lation, 69. 

Greece,  69. 

Grimme,   Prof.    Herbert,    45, 

51- 
Grosvenor,  Gilbert  H.,  quoted, 

73- 

Gujerati  translation  of  the 
Koran,  170. 

Hajj  al  Akbar,  146. 
Halil  Halid,  quoted,  233. 
Hanbali  school,  60. 
Hanifi  school,  60. 
Hansen,  Dr.,  43,  213. 


INDEX 


287 


Hartmann,  Prof.  M.,  45,  58, 

65  (note  4). 

Haussa,  65  (note  3),  192. 
Heathen    Mohammedans    of 

Malaysia,  60. 
Hebrew    translation    of    the 

Koran,  160. 

Hedjaz  Railway,  23,  206. 
Hermann        of        Dalmatia, 

159. 
Hindi     translation     of     the 

Koran,  170. 
'- 'Hindustan  Review,"  quoted, 

208  f. 

Houtsma,  45. 
Huber,  Major  R.,  map  of  the 

Ottoman  Empire,  40. 
Hurgronje,    Snouck,    22,    23, 

45.  60. 

Ibn  Saood,  211. 

'Id-ul-Azha,  146. 

'Id-ui-Fitz,  146. 

Ignorance  in  Islam,  26. 

Ilminsky,  Nicholas  S,  49, 
86  f. 

Imad-ud-Din,  Dr.,  170. 

Imam-el-Muslimin,  24, 

India,  Islam  in,  183,  247 ; 
Moslem  population,  41, 
66  f .  ;  Nile  Mission  press 
literature  in,  32  ;  spread 
of  Islam,  41. 

Indo-China,  101. 

Intellectual  readjustment 
among  Moslems,  28  f. 

Ireland,  Alleyne,  59. 

"Islamic  Review,"  quoted, 
263  ff. 

Ispahan,  119. 

Italian  Somaliland,  61  ;  trans- 
lation of  the  Koran,  161. 


Jakuts,  77. 

Jamad-al-Awal,  145  ;  J.-ath- 
Thani,  145. 

Jamaica,  70. 

Japan,  Moslem  population, 
69 ;  Moslem  prayer  towards 
Mecca,  19 ;  Moslem  pro- 
paganda, 207. 

Java,  Cairo  influence  in,  28  ; 
Christian  converts,  221  ; 
Koran  in,  104,  172  ;  Mos- 
lem population,  67  ;  Pil- 
grimage to  Mecca,  21  ; 
Sharikat  Islam,  216  ;  edu- 
cation, 250. 

Jerusalem,  119. 

Jessup,  Dr.  H.  H.,  57. 

Jiddah,  terminus  of  Hedjaz 
Railway,  23 ;  missionary 
work  at,  219. 

Kabyles,  233. 

Kadhriya,  81. 

Kaisariyah,  119. 

Kalkar,     Dr.     Christian    H., 

46. 

Kameruns,  32,  63. 
Kars,  77. 
Kashgar,  76. 
Kasimirski,  160. 
Kazan,  77,  79. 
Kerbela,  119,  203,  220,  267. 
Keyser,  Prof.,  161. 
Khiva,  115. 
Khokand,  77. 
Kikuyu   Conference,   Moslem 

criticism  of,  258  f. 
Kirghiz,  75,  76. 
Kirman,  119. 
Koelle,  quoted,  238. 
Koran,  20  et  passim. 
Kurds,  77. 


288 


INDEX 


Kuteiba,  74. 
Kuweit,  102,  1 1 8. 

Lagos,  32. 

Lammens,  Pere  H.,  45. 

Lane-Poole,  Stanley,  quoted, 

21  f.,  157  f. 
Larrey,    Baron    de,    quoted, 

105. 

Larson,  E.  John,  quoted,  85. 
Latin     translations    of     the 

Koran,  159  ff. 
Le  Chatelier,  Prof.,  45. 
Leir,    Jacob    b.    Israel    ha, 

161. 

Liberia,  43,  61. 
Libya,  61. 
Littmann,  Dr.  Enno,  quoted, 

44. 
Lucknow     Conference,     204 ; 

Moslem    Educational  Con- 
ference, 268. 
Lucky  days,  151. 
Lull,  Raymund,  46,  222. 

MacDonald,     Prof.     D.     B., 

quoted,  45,  272. 
Madagascar,  62,  208. 
Mahan,  Capt.,  118. 
Mahdism,  213. 
Malaysia,  49,   106,   192,   208, 

212. 

Malays  in  South  Africa,  92  ff. 
Malay     translation     of     the 

Koran,  170. 
Maldive  Islands,  66. 
Maliki  school,  60. 
"El-Manar,"  205,  235  ff.,  260. 
Mandingo,  65  (note  3). 
Maracci,  Louis,  159. 
Marash,  120. 
Mardin,  104,  119. 


Margoliouth,  Prof.  D.  S.,  45, 
58,65  (note  4),  155,  164. 

Marsovan,  120. 

Martyn,  Henry,  133,  222. 

Massignon,  Louis,  45. 

Maurer,  H.,  128. 

Mauritanie,  62. 

Mauritius,  64,  205. 

Mayer,  Miss  J.  von,  56,  76  ff. 

Mecca,  centre  of  religious 
influence,  19,  20  ff.,  106  ; 
conference  at,  210  ;  condi- 
tions at,  23,  182  ;  pilgrim- 
age, 20,  8 1,  97,  203  ;  popu- 
lation, 20;  question  of 
missionary  occupation,  22, 
23  ;  railway  to,  125  ; 
Sherif  of,  210;  universal 
prayer  towards,  2 1  f . 

Medina,  conditions  at,  182  f.  ; 
pilgrimage  to,  203. 

Megerlin,  Frederick,  161. 

Merv,  76. 

Meshed,  219. 

Mesopotamia,  66. 

Mexico,  Moslem  population, 
70. 

Mirza  Ab'ul  Fazl,  165. 

Missionary  education,  influ- 
ence of,  214,  249. 

-Missionary  Review  of  the 
World,"  Census  of  Moslem 
World,  57. 

"  Moayyad "  on  Moslem 
population  of  the  world,  57. 

Mohammed,  2 1  et  passim. 

Mohammed  Abdul  Hakim 
Khan,  165. 

Montenegro,  69. 

Montet,  45. 

Moondji,  Abdul  Kareem, 
quoted,  248. 


INDEX 


289 


Morocco,  Arabic  in,  192  ; 
changed  conditions  in,  220  ; 
influence  of  Constantinople, 
25 ;  Moslem  population, 
62 ;  Nile  Mission  press 
literature  in,  32. 

Moslem.literature  for  children, 
196  f.  ;  propaganda,  254  ff. 

Mosques  in  South  Africa,  95. 

Mosul,  119. 

£1  Muhammadi,"  quoted,  37. 

Muharram,  145. 

Muir,  Sir  Wm.,  quoted,  194. 

Nallino,  C.  A.,  144. 

Naqshabendi,  81. 

Natal,  32,  64. 

New  Guinea,  104. 

New  School  Moslems,  60,  208, 
215  1,  219,  245  ff. 

Ngarpah,  172. 

Nigeria,  32,  63. 

Nile  Mission  press,  31  ff.,  197. 

Nisabori,  quoted,  140  f. 

Noldeke,  Theodor,  45,  161. 

Nording,  J.  T.,  160. 

North  America,  Moslem  popu- 
lation, 69. 

Norwegian  translation  of  the 
Koran,  160. 

Nyassaland,  32,  64. 

Orange  Province,  64. 

Orenburg,  77. 

Oriental  churches,  25,  38,  39, 

US- 
-'•Orient  and  Occident,"  156. 

Palestine,  32,  115. 
Palmer,  E.  H.,  164. 
Pamir  sects,  82. 
Pan-Islamism,  78,  209,  212  f. 

19 


Pan-Tjoork,  79. 

Pan-Turkism,  78. 

Panthier,  160. 

Payne,  Dr.,  222. 

Pennell,  Dr.,  222  f. 

Persia,  intellectual  centre  of 
Central  Asia,  116;  Moslem 
population,  69,  78,  115  ; 
Nile  Mission  press  litera- 
ture in,  32  ;  political  condi- 
tions, 211. 

Persian  Armenia,  32. 

Persian,  as  a  language  of 
religious  literature,  156; 
translation  of  the  Koran, 
170. 

Petrus  Venerabilis,  159. 

Philippine  Islands,  25,  67. 

Pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  21,  22. 

Pitto,  Joseph,  visit  to  Mecca, 

22. 

Portuguese  East  Africa,  61 ; 

Guinea,  61. 
Prayer  periods,  149. 
Propaganda    of    Islam    from 

Cairo,    31;    south    of    the 

equator,  38  ;  Bokhara,  75, 

77  ;   Japan,  207. 
Pushtu    translation    of    the 

Koran,  170. 

Qadiana  sect,  166  ff.,  252. 

Rabi'a  al-Awal,  145;  R.-uth- 

Thani,  145. 
Rajah,  145. 
Ralli,  Augustus,  22. 
Ramsay,  Sir  Wm.,  24. 
Reckendorf,  Hermann,  161. 
Red  Crescent  Society,  231. 
Reunion,  62. 
Richter,  Prof.  J.,  65  (note  4). 


290 


INDEX 


Rickmers,  W.  R.,  quoted,  82. 

Rio  de  Oro,  6 1 . 

Robert  College,  26,  120. 

Robert  of  Retina,  159. 

Rod  well,  J.  M.,  164. 

Rogers,  Miner,  128. 

Rohrbach,  Dr.,  quoted,  102  f. 

Roman  Catholic,  Missions  to 
Moslems  in  Africa,  43,  49  ; 
scholars  of  Islam,  45. 

Rumania,  69. 

Russia,  Islam  in,  73  ff.  ; 
Moslem  literature,  80  ff.  ; 
Moslem  population,  68  ; 
Moslem  women,  83,  84  ff.  ; 
Nile  Mission  press  litera- 
ture in,  32  ;  no  Protestant 
mission  to  Moslems,  48, 
86  ff.  ;  pilgrims  to  Mecca, 
21 ;  mission  to  Islam,  83; 
Russian  translation  of  the 
Koran,  161. 

Ryer,  A.  du,  160,  161. 

Safar,  145. 

Sahara,  28. 

Sale,  Geo.,  159,  161,  163. 

Salonica,  119. 

Samarkand,  74,  76,  77,  83. 

Saratoff,  83. 

Sartes,  77. 

Savary,  160. 

Sayous,  45. 

Schaade,  45. 

Schweigger,  161. 

Seligsohn,  45. 

Sell,  Canon,  quoted,  42  f. 

Senegal,  62. 

Senussi  sect,  213. 

Servia,    Moslem    population, 

69. 
Servier,  A.,  212. 


Shaban,  145. 

Shadiliyeh,  81. 

Shan  school,  60. 

Shah,  Dr.  Ahmad,  170. 

Sharikat  Islam  in  Java,  216. 

Shawwal,  146. 

Shedd,  Dr.,  quoted,  123. 

Sheldrake,  Khalid,  162. 

Shiah  sect,  60,  239  f. 

Shiraz,  119. 

Siam,  Moslem  population,  56, 
69. 

Siberia,  75,  101. 

Sidqi,  M.  Tewfiq,  234,  255. 

Sierra  Leone,  21,  63. 

Sill,  E.  R.,  quoted,  190. 

Simon,  Gottfried,  60. 

Sindh,  32. 

Smyrna,  119,  120. 

Somaliland,  63,  213. 

South  Africa,  91  ff. 

South  America,  69  f. 

Spanish,  Guinea,  61 ;  transla- 
tion of  the  Koran,  160. 

Strad,  Rev.  F.  M.,  quoted, 
112. 

Strad,  W.  T.,  quoted,  26. 

Straits  Settlement,  67. 

Strategic  survey  and  occupa- 
tion needed,  48  ff. 

Sudan,  64. 

Sumatra,  104,  221. 

Swahelis,  192. 

Swaziland,  64. 

Swedish  translation  of  the 
Koran,  160. 

Syria,  32,68,  115. 

Syrian     Protestant     College, 

120. 

Tabriz,  119. 

Takle,  Rev.  J.,  quoted,  221. 


INDEX 


291 


Tannir,  M.  Tahir  et,  234,  255. 

Tarsus,  120. 

Tartary,  islamised,  75. 

Tashkent,  77,  83. 

Tatars,  75. 

Teheran,  119,  120. 

"  Terjuman,"  79. 

Tersk,  77. 

Tibet,  69,  101. 

Tiflis,  85. 

Timbuctoo,  28,  49. 

Tobolsk,  21. 

Togo,  63. 

Togoudar  Ogoul,  75. 

Tornberg,  160. 

Tracy,  President,  quoted,  120. 

Traditions   on    Jesus  Christ, 

229  ff. 
Translations   of    the    Koran, 

155  * 

Transvaal,  32. 

Trebizond,  119. 

Trinidad,  70. 

Tripoli,  32,  192. 

Troizk,  77. 

Tuaregs,  232. 

Tunganis,  75. 

Tunisia,  32,  63,  192. 

Turkestan,  islamised,  74,  75  ; 

unoccupied       field,       115; 

women  of,  83. 
Turkey  in    Europe,    32,    69, 

n6f. 

Turkish  Arabia,  32. 
Turkish    as    a    language    of 

religious  literature,  156. 
Turkish  translations  of  the 

Koran,  173  ff. 
Turkmans,  77. 

Ufa,  77,  79. 
Uganda,  64. 


Ullmann,  161. 

Ulug  Beg,  145. 

Union  of  Christian  forces  over 
against  Islam :  Oriental 
Churches,  40 ;  between 
Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic,  42  fL,  50  ff. ;  lines 
for  Protestant  initiative, 
44  ff . ;  points  of  unity  be- 
tween Christians,  46  ff. 

United  Provinces,  32. 

Unity,  and  Spread  of  Islam, 
39  ;  of  Christendom,  cited 
by  "  Muhammadi,"  37  ;  re- 
ferred to  in  Cairo  press, 
38  ;  of  Moslem  world, 
19. 

Uralsk,  77. 

Urdu,  as  language  of  religious 
literature,  156;  translations 
of  the  Koran,  169,  170. 

Usbeks,  77. 

Wadai,  65  (note  4). 

Wahl,  G.,  161. 

Warneck,  J.,  on  Moslems  in 

Malaysia,  60. 
Watches    in    Moslem    lands, 

151  **• 
Watson,  Dr.  Chas.  R.,  quoted, 

18,32. 

West  Africa,  21. 
Westermann,  Prof.  D.,  57. 
West      Indies,      Koran      in, 

104. 
Whitehead,   Bishop,   quoted, 

41. 

Wilde,  visit  to  Mecca,  22. 
Willcocks,  Sir  W.,  118. 
Wilson,  Rev.  S.  G.,  quoted, 

240. 
Woking  Mission,  259. 


292 

Wolof,  65  (note  3). 
Wiirz,  Pastor  F.,  51. 

Yanichouyli,  Mir,  171. 
Yemen,  210. 
Yenbo,  220. 


INDEX 


Yezd,  119. 

Young,  Rev.  Dr.  J.  C.,  quoted, 
112. 

Zanzibar,  64,  192,  218. 
Zarkawy,  142. 


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